This document provides an overview of memory, including:
- Why memory is important for skills, identity, language, culture, etc.
- Models of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory.
- Encoding of memories through effortful strategies like chunking, mnemonics, rehearsal, and finding personal meaning.
- Storage of memories throughout the brain in overlapping neural networks rather than isolated files. Key areas include the hippocampus for explicit memory and cerebellum/basal ganglia for implicit memory.
lecture 20 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, Loftus, eyewitness memory
The document summarizes research on learning, memory, amnesia, and brain functioning. It discusses classical and operant conditioning experiments by Pavlov and others. It describes studies showing memory is not localized to specific brain areas, and the hippocampus is important for forming new long-term memories. Different types of amnesia result from damage to different brain regions like the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex. Long-term potentiation and other physiological mechanisms are thought to underlie learning and memory at the synaptic level.
Memory works through encoding, storage, and retrieval according to an information processing model. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory and then long-term memory, though more recent models recognize additional processing in working memory and some automatic processing into long-term memory. Memories can be formed through effortful, explicit processing or implicit, automatic processing. Encoding involves strategies like chunking, mnemonics, rehearsal, deep processing, and relating information to oneself. Memories are stored throughout the brain in overlapping neural networks rather than isolated locations. Explicit and implicit memories are processed in different brain areas, and emotions can strengthen memory formation through the amygdala. Retrieval is affected
Memory is the ability to retain information over time through three processes: encoding, storing, and retrieving. There are three stages of memory - sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory holds environmental information for a brief period of time, short-term memory stores information for 2-30 seconds, and long-term memory stores unlimited information over long periods of time. How information is encoded, whether through shallow or deep processing, determines how well it can be remembered later.
There are three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Memory theories propose that information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in different stages. The most widely accepted theory is the information processing theory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, which describes a multi-stage model of memory involving input, sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Better processing and elaboration of information leads to stronger long-term memories according to levels of processing theories.
This document discusses human memory and its stages. It describes memory as having three stages - encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves processing incoming information. Storage refers to retaining information over time. Retrieval involves recovering stored information. It also discusses models of memory like the Atkinson-Shiffrin model which describes sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Mechanisms of forgetting like trace decay and interference are also summarized.
This document discusses different types of memory including short-term memory, long-term memory, procedural memory, priming memory, episodic memory, and semantic memory. It describes key aspects of memory such as encoding, storage, and retrieval. Different causes of memory loss are also outlined including alcohol blackout, dissociative fugue, Korsakoff's psychosis, post-traumatic amnesia, and repressed memory.
Learning takes four basic forms: perceptual learning, stimulus-response learning, motor learning, and relational learning. Studies of amnesia patients like H.M., who had his hippocampus removed, showed that the hippocampus is vital for forming new long-term memories and declarative memory like recalling events. Damage to different brain areas results in different types of amnesia, like Korsakoff's syndrome from thiamine deficiency or Alzheimer's disease associated with amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain.
lecture 20 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, Loftus, eyewitness memory
The document summarizes research on learning, memory, amnesia, and brain functioning. It discusses classical and operant conditioning experiments by Pavlov and others. It describes studies showing memory is not localized to specific brain areas, and the hippocampus is important for forming new long-term memories. Different types of amnesia result from damage to different brain regions like the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex. Long-term potentiation and other physiological mechanisms are thought to underlie learning and memory at the synaptic level.
Memory works through encoding, storage, and retrieval according to an information processing model. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory and then long-term memory, though more recent models recognize additional processing in working memory and some automatic processing into long-term memory. Memories can be formed through effortful, explicit processing or implicit, automatic processing. Encoding involves strategies like chunking, mnemonics, rehearsal, deep processing, and relating information to oneself. Memories are stored throughout the brain in overlapping neural networks rather than isolated locations. Explicit and implicit memories are processed in different brain areas, and emotions can strengthen memory formation through the amygdala. Retrieval is affected
Memory is the ability to retain information over time through three processes: encoding, storing, and retrieving. There are three stages of memory - sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory holds environmental information for a brief period of time, short-term memory stores information for 2-30 seconds, and long-term memory stores unlimited information over long periods of time. How information is encoded, whether through shallow or deep processing, determines how well it can be remembered later.
There are three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Memory theories propose that information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in different stages. The most widely accepted theory is the information processing theory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, which describes a multi-stage model of memory involving input, sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Better processing and elaboration of information leads to stronger long-term memories according to levels of processing theories.
This document discusses human memory and its stages. It describes memory as having three stages - encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves processing incoming information. Storage refers to retaining information over time. Retrieval involves recovering stored information. It also discusses models of memory like the Atkinson-Shiffrin model which describes sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Mechanisms of forgetting like trace decay and interference are also summarized.
This document discusses different types of memory including short-term memory, long-term memory, procedural memory, priming memory, episodic memory, and semantic memory. It describes key aspects of memory such as encoding, storage, and retrieval. Different causes of memory loss are also outlined including alcohol blackout, dissociative fugue, Korsakoff's psychosis, post-traumatic amnesia, and repressed memory.
Learning takes four basic forms: perceptual learning, stimulus-response learning, motor learning, and relational learning. Studies of amnesia patients like H.M., who had his hippocampus removed, showed that the hippocampus is vital for forming new long-term memories and declarative memory like recalling events. Damage to different brain areas results in different types of amnesia, like Korsakoff's syndrome from thiamine deficiency or Alzheimer's disease associated with amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain.
Psychology memory cognition language power pointTimothy Bradley
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to memory, cognition, and language. It discusses the main components of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It also explains different memory systems like sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. For cognition, it defines concepts and prototypes, and explains problem solving approaches like algorithms and heuristics. It also discusses language acquisition in infants and theories of an innate language acquisition device. Finally, it provides a brief overview of artificial intelligence and its attempts to simulate human thought.
1. The multi-store model of memory proposes that memory consists of three main stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
2. Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information, short-term memory can hold information for seconds to minutes, and long-term memory stores information indefinitely.
3. The working memory model updated the multi-store model by proposing two slave systems - the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad - that actively maintain information in short-term memory under the control of a central executive.
This document summarizes key aspects of memory from a psychology textbook. It discusses the three main stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. For encoding, it describes how information is processed automatically or through effortful encoding using techniques like rehearsal. For storage, it outlines the three memory stores of sensory memory, working/short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses theories of how memories are stored physically in the brain through synaptic changes. Finally, it briefly discusses factors that can affect retrieval like cues and types of forgetting.
The document discusses the different types of human memory. Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information for a few seconds before it is forgotten. Short-term memory, which relies on the prefrontal cortex, can hold information temporarily to complete a task. It includes immediate memory and working memory. Long-term memory can store information permanently based on meaning and importance, transferring it from short-term memory through the hippocampus for long-term storage. Different brain regions are involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving different types of memories.
The document discusses models of memory and how it works. It describes:
1) The Atkinson-Shiffrin model which proposes that stimuli are encoded into sensory memory briefly before being rehearsed in working memory and stored in long-term memory.
2) Dual-track processing with both explicit memories formed through effortful encoding and implicit memories formed automatically without awareness.
3) Encoding involves attention, rehearsal in working memory which can hold around 7 items briefly before decay, and effortful strategies like chunking, mnemonics and distributed practice to facilitate long-term storage.
This document summarizes research on flashbulb memories. Flashbulb memories are highly vivid and accurate memories of learning about a shocking event. Three key studies are discussed:
1) Brown and Kulik (1977) found people had detailed memories of learning about the JFK assassination. However, they did not verify memory accuracy.
2) Neisser and Harsh (1992) found major differences between initial accounts and a 2.5 year follow-up of memories of the Challenger explosion, questioning the accuracy of flashbulb memories over time.
3) Phelps et al. (2006) found those who witnessed 9/11 up close had more emotional memories and brain activity related to the event compared to
Sensory memory is the first stage of memory and involves briefly registering a large amount of information from the senses. It acts as a "snapshot" of the environment, allowing focus on relevant details. There are three stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is very brief but holds a large amount of information. It transmits some of what is sensed to short-term memory. Types of sensory memory include visual, auditory, and touch memory.
The document introduces several key concepts in psychology including intuition, common sense, psychological science, critical thinking, the scientific method, theories, hypotheses, research methods, experiments, and statistical analysis. It discusses how psychology aims to provide a scientific understanding of human behavior and mental processes through rigorous empirical study rather than relying solely on intuition or common sense.
Flashbulb memories are highly vivid memories of learning about a shocking or emotional event. Early studies found that people had accurate memories of the context and their reactions to significant events like the JFK assassination. However, later studies found that flashbulb memories lack consistency and accuracy over time, even if confidence in the memories remains high. While emotional events may be more memorable initially, repeated testing has shown that flashbulb memories are reconstructive and details can change substantially within a few years of the event.
Behavioral diagnosis (Transactional analysis / TA is an integrative approach ...Manu Melwin Joy
In behavioral diagnosis, you judge which ego state a person is in by observing his behavior. As you do so, you can see or hear: Words, Tones, Gestures, Postures and Facial Expressions
The document discusses several topics related to memory, including:
1. Memory is selective and reconstructive rather than like a videotape, as recall involves filling gaps with inferences that are sometimes unaware.
2. Confabulation occurs when people confuse events that happened to someone else or events that never occurred with their own memories. It is more likely under certain conditions.
3. Studies found that young children can be led to make false claims of events through suggestive questioning techniques.
4. Hypnosis is not considered reliable for courtroom testimony due to high rates of errors and false memories it can induce.
5. The three-box model of memory describes sensory memory, short-term memory,
The document provides an overview of human development across the lifespan from conception through adulthood according to Psychology 8th Edition by David Myers. It covers prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. For each life stage, it discusses physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development, drawing from theorists like Piaget and Kohlberg. It also addresses debates around concepts like attachment theory, parenting styles, identity formation, and brain development throughout the lifespan.
این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی حافظه توسط دکتر فائزه دهقان ارائه شده است. برای دریافت اطلاعات بیشتر در مورد این کارگاه به وب سایت فروردین مراجعه فرمایید.
https://farvardin-group.com
Mnemonics are memory tools that form associations to help recall information from long-term memory. There are several types of mnemonics including acronyms which use the first letter of items in a list to form a word, acrostics which do the same but form a sentence, word associations like rhymes and songs, picture associations which use mental images, and the loci method of associating items with rooms in a building. Examples of each type are provided to illustrate how mnemonics can be effectively used to remember various facts and concepts.
This study examined age-related differences in episodic and semantic autobiographical memory retrieval. Younger and older adults were asked to recall life events from different periods of their lives with varying levels of retrieval support. The results showed that older adults recalled fewer episodic details and more semantic details compared to younger adults. Providing specific probes about event details increased recall of episodic information for both age groups, particularly for older adults recalling more remote events. This suggests that retrieval support can reduce some age-related deficits in autobiographical memory retrieval.
Short-term memory (STM) has a limited capacity of 5-9 items that lasts up to 30 seconds, whereas long-term memory (LTM) has an unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime. STM encodes information acoustically based on sound, while LTM encodes semantically based on meaning. Studies have found recency and primacy effects in recall, with the first and last items on a list being best remembered. Research into encoding and duration provides evidence of differences between STM and LTM.
This document discusses working memory, including its definition as the processing space in the mind/brain used for computing information. It describes common models of working memory that include multiple subsystems like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. Examples are given of how working memory explains phenomena like phonological confusions, word length effects, and irrelevant speech effects. The document also discusses that working memory has limits, capacities vary between individuals, and it is crucial for learning due to its role in holding information during effortful tasks.
Psychological Games People Play - Transactional AnalysisManu Melwin Joy
1. The document analyzes and defines the concept of psychological games according to transactional analysis theory. It describes typical features of games, different levels of game intensity, and diagrams for analyzing games.
2. Games follow a six stage formula called "Formula G" involving a con, gimmick, response, switch, cross up, and payoff. They involve ulterior transactions and result in racket feelings.
3. People in games take on drama triangle roles of persecutor, rescuer, or victim and switch between these roles through the stages of the game.
4. Various methods are presented for analyzing games, including transactional diagrams, the drama triangle, and a "game plan" involving
This document summarizes key aspects of working memory. It defines working memory as the system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex cognitive tasks. The central executive controls attention and monitors thinking/memory processes. There are two storage systems - the visuospatial sketchpad handles visual information and the phonological loop rehearses verbal information. Research indicates people can process around 7 units of information at once, though this varies by task. The modal model proposes separate auditory and visual processing pathways to help "stretch" working memory capacity.
1. Memory works through encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding gets information into the brain, storage holds it, and retrieval recalls it.
2. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model describes memory formation moving from sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory. Working memory processes information in short-term memory.
3. Memories are formed through either effortful processing requiring rehearsal and encoding or automatic processing without awareness into implicit memory.
The document discusses models of memory including the Atkinson-Shiffrin model which conceptualizes memory as consisting of sensory, short-term, and long-term stores. It also covers the levels-of-processing model which proposes that memory depends on the depth of encoding of information. Working memory is described as a limited capacity system that temporarily holds and manages the information necessary for complex cognitive tasks.
Psychology memory cognition language power pointTimothy Bradley
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to memory, cognition, and language. It discusses the main components of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It also explains different memory systems like sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. For cognition, it defines concepts and prototypes, and explains problem solving approaches like algorithms and heuristics. It also discusses language acquisition in infants and theories of an innate language acquisition device. Finally, it provides a brief overview of artificial intelligence and its attempts to simulate human thought.
1. The multi-store model of memory proposes that memory consists of three main stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
2. Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information, short-term memory can hold information for seconds to minutes, and long-term memory stores information indefinitely.
3. The working memory model updated the multi-store model by proposing two slave systems - the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad - that actively maintain information in short-term memory under the control of a central executive.
This document summarizes key aspects of memory from a psychology textbook. It discusses the three main stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. For encoding, it describes how information is processed automatically or through effortful encoding using techniques like rehearsal. For storage, it outlines the three memory stores of sensory memory, working/short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses theories of how memories are stored physically in the brain through synaptic changes. Finally, it briefly discusses factors that can affect retrieval like cues and types of forgetting.
The document discusses the different types of human memory. Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information for a few seconds before it is forgotten. Short-term memory, which relies on the prefrontal cortex, can hold information temporarily to complete a task. It includes immediate memory and working memory. Long-term memory can store information permanently based on meaning and importance, transferring it from short-term memory through the hippocampus for long-term storage. Different brain regions are involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving different types of memories.
The document discusses models of memory and how it works. It describes:
1) The Atkinson-Shiffrin model which proposes that stimuli are encoded into sensory memory briefly before being rehearsed in working memory and stored in long-term memory.
2) Dual-track processing with both explicit memories formed through effortful encoding and implicit memories formed automatically without awareness.
3) Encoding involves attention, rehearsal in working memory which can hold around 7 items briefly before decay, and effortful strategies like chunking, mnemonics and distributed practice to facilitate long-term storage.
This document summarizes research on flashbulb memories. Flashbulb memories are highly vivid and accurate memories of learning about a shocking event. Three key studies are discussed:
1) Brown and Kulik (1977) found people had detailed memories of learning about the JFK assassination. However, they did not verify memory accuracy.
2) Neisser and Harsh (1992) found major differences between initial accounts and a 2.5 year follow-up of memories of the Challenger explosion, questioning the accuracy of flashbulb memories over time.
3) Phelps et al. (2006) found those who witnessed 9/11 up close had more emotional memories and brain activity related to the event compared to
Sensory memory is the first stage of memory and involves briefly registering a large amount of information from the senses. It acts as a "snapshot" of the environment, allowing focus on relevant details. There are three stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is very brief but holds a large amount of information. It transmits some of what is sensed to short-term memory. Types of sensory memory include visual, auditory, and touch memory.
The document introduces several key concepts in psychology including intuition, common sense, psychological science, critical thinking, the scientific method, theories, hypotheses, research methods, experiments, and statistical analysis. It discusses how psychology aims to provide a scientific understanding of human behavior and mental processes through rigorous empirical study rather than relying solely on intuition or common sense.
Flashbulb memories are highly vivid memories of learning about a shocking or emotional event. Early studies found that people had accurate memories of the context and their reactions to significant events like the JFK assassination. However, later studies found that flashbulb memories lack consistency and accuracy over time, even if confidence in the memories remains high. While emotional events may be more memorable initially, repeated testing has shown that flashbulb memories are reconstructive and details can change substantially within a few years of the event.
Behavioral diagnosis (Transactional analysis / TA is an integrative approach ...Manu Melwin Joy
In behavioral diagnosis, you judge which ego state a person is in by observing his behavior. As you do so, you can see or hear: Words, Tones, Gestures, Postures and Facial Expressions
The document discusses several topics related to memory, including:
1. Memory is selective and reconstructive rather than like a videotape, as recall involves filling gaps with inferences that are sometimes unaware.
2. Confabulation occurs when people confuse events that happened to someone else or events that never occurred with their own memories. It is more likely under certain conditions.
3. Studies found that young children can be led to make false claims of events through suggestive questioning techniques.
4. Hypnosis is not considered reliable for courtroom testimony due to high rates of errors and false memories it can induce.
5. The three-box model of memory describes sensory memory, short-term memory,
The document provides an overview of human development across the lifespan from conception through adulthood according to Psychology 8th Edition by David Myers. It covers prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. For each life stage, it discusses physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development, drawing from theorists like Piaget and Kohlberg. It also addresses debates around concepts like attachment theory, parenting styles, identity formation, and brain development throughout the lifespan.
این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی حافظه توسط دکتر فائزه دهقان ارائه شده است. برای دریافت اطلاعات بیشتر در مورد این کارگاه به وب سایت فروردین مراجعه فرمایید.
https://farvardin-group.com
Mnemonics are memory tools that form associations to help recall information from long-term memory. There are several types of mnemonics including acronyms which use the first letter of items in a list to form a word, acrostics which do the same but form a sentence, word associations like rhymes and songs, picture associations which use mental images, and the loci method of associating items with rooms in a building. Examples of each type are provided to illustrate how mnemonics can be effectively used to remember various facts and concepts.
This study examined age-related differences in episodic and semantic autobiographical memory retrieval. Younger and older adults were asked to recall life events from different periods of their lives with varying levels of retrieval support. The results showed that older adults recalled fewer episodic details and more semantic details compared to younger adults. Providing specific probes about event details increased recall of episodic information for both age groups, particularly for older adults recalling more remote events. This suggests that retrieval support can reduce some age-related deficits in autobiographical memory retrieval.
Short-term memory (STM) has a limited capacity of 5-9 items that lasts up to 30 seconds, whereas long-term memory (LTM) has an unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime. STM encodes information acoustically based on sound, while LTM encodes semantically based on meaning. Studies have found recency and primacy effects in recall, with the first and last items on a list being best remembered. Research into encoding and duration provides evidence of differences between STM and LTM.
This document discusses working memory, including its definition as the processing space in the mind/brain used for computing information. It describes common models of working memory that include multiple subsystems like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. Examples are given of how working memory explains phenomena like phonological confusions, word length effects, and irrelevant speech effects. The document also discusses that working memory has limits, capacities vary between individuals, and it is crucial for learning due to its role in holding information during effortful tasks.
Psychological Games People Play - Transactional AnalysisManu Melwin Joy
1. The document analyzes and defines the concept of psychological games according to transactional analysis theory. It describes typical features of games, different levels of game intensity, and diagrams for analyzing games.
2. Games follow a six stage formula called "Formula G" involving a con, gimmick, response, switch, cross up, and payoff. They involve ulterior transactions and result in racket feelings.
3. People in games take on drama triangle roles of persecutor, rescuer, or victim and switch between these roles through the stages of the game.
4. Various methods are presented for analyzing games, including transactional diagrams, the drama triangle, and a "game plan" involving
This document summarizes key aspects of working memory. It defines working memory as the system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex cognitive tasks. The central executive controls attention and monitors thinking/memory processes. There are two storage systems - the visuospatial sketchpad handles visual information and the phonological loop rehearses verbal information. Research indicates people can process around 7 units of information at once, though this varies by task. The modal model proposes separate auditory and visual processing pathways to help "stretch" working memory capacity.
1. Memory works through encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding gets information into the brain, storage holds it, and retrieval recalls it.
2. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model describes memory formation moving from sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory. Working memory processes information in short-term memory.
3. Memories are formed through either effortful processing requiring rehearsal and encoding or automatic processing without awareness into implicit memory.
The document discusses models of memory including the Atkinson-Shiffrin model which conceptualizes memory as consisting of sensory, short-term, and long-term stores. It also covers the levels-of-processing model which proposes that memory depends on the depth of encoding of information. Working memory is described as a limited capacity system that temporarily holds and manages the information necessary for complex cognitive tasks.
There are three main types of memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is very brief while short-term memory can last up to 30 seconds with rehearsal. Long-term memory has a huge capacity and can store memories from hours to years. Memories are encoded through different codes like visual or verbal and can be consolidated into long-term memory over time through the process of reconsolidation when recalled. The depth and type of processing used during encoding affects how well information is remembered later.
Memory defintion
Stages of Memory
Capacity of storage
How to increase the capacity
what is Chunk ?
Using Cues to Aid Retrieval
Why we forget
Kinds of Interference
Measures of Forgetting
The document discusses memory, forgetting, and ways to improve memory. It defines memory as the ability to encode, store, and recall past experiences. Memory involves sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Information is transferred between these memory stores. Forgetting occurs when memory traces fade over time. The document outlines several techniques to improve memory, including focusing attention, repetition, organization, using mnemonic devices, and learning in a way that works for the individual.
Memory consists of three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is how information enters memory, storage is how it is maintained over time, and retrieval is recovering stored information. There are three main memory stores: sensory memory (holds impressions for seconds), short-term memory (holds 7 items for 20-30 seconds through rehearsal), and long-term memory (seemingly unlimited storage for days or longer). Four theories explain forgetting: decay (fading over time), interference (new information blocks old), disuse (abandoning unused memories), and motivated forgetting (actively trying to forget).
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding transforms information into codes that create a memory trace stored in memory. There are two main types of memory stores - short term memory which can hold 7 +/- 2 items for up to 30 seconds, and long term memory which can hold memories for minutes to years without limit. Baddeley's model of working memory involves an attentional control system and two subsystems to support visual and verbal information. Levels of processing theory suggests that deeper processing of information results in stronger, more durable memories than shallow processing.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding transforms information into codes that create a memory trace stored in memory. There are two main types of memory stores - short term memory which can hold 7 items for up to 30 seconds, and long term memory which has unlimited duration and capacity. Baddeley's model of working memory includes a central executive supported by visual and verbal subsystems. Levels of processing theory holds that memories are stronger when information is more deeply processed. Memory is stored through synaptic changes in the brain, and retrieval involves processes like recall, recognition, and context dependence.
Chapter Outline8.1 How Memory Functions8.2 Parts of the Brain JinElias52
This chapter explores memory, including its functions, parts of the brain involved, and ways to enhance it. Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding involves inputting information into memory through automatic or effortful processing. Information is stored in sensory memory briefly, short-term memory for 15-30 seconds, and long-term memory indefinitely. Memories are organized in semantic networks in long-term memory. Retrieval involves accessing stored information.
Information processing involves three main steps - encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves paying attention to process information through either automatic or effortful processing. There are two main types of memory storage - sensory memory which fades quickly, and long-term memory which can store memories permanently. Context is important for retrieval as memories are best recalled in the same context they were encoded in. Forgetting can occur due to failures in encoding, storage or retrieval and can be caused by interference or motivated forgetting.
There are three main stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information, short-term memory actively processes information over seconds to minutes, and long-term memory stores information indefinitely. Information is encoded, stored, and retrieved between these memory systems. While long-term memory has unlimited capacity, we can forget due to encoding failures, interference, motivated forgetting, or decay over time if memories are not reinforced.
Memory is the ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. It involves three main stages - sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Several areas of the brain are involved in memory, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebral cortex. There are different types of memory such as declarative, procedural, short-term, and long-term memory. Forgetting is the apparent loss of information already encoded in long-term memory. Methods for improving memory include brain exercises, aerobic exercise, managing stress, good sleep habits, and not smoking. Memory abilities change with aging as the brain undergoes deterioration over time.
The document summarizes the multi-stage model of memory, including sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory. It discusses the functions, capacities, and durations of each memory stage. Encoding and retrieval processes are described for transferring information between memory stores. Factors that influence memory, such as encoding specificity, interference, and forgetting, are also summarized.
Memory involves the retention and recall of information and experiences. The hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebral cortex play key roles in memory processing and storage. There are different types of memory including short-term memory, long-term memory, sensory memory, declarative memory, and procedural memory. Methods for improving memory include recall, recognition, relearning, brain exercises, managing stress, good sleep, and not smoking. Aging can impact memory through changes in the hippocampus and loss of neurons and brain function over time. Forgetting and amnesia can result from brain damage or injury.
Memory can be improved through various techniques. Encoding information semantically and using imagery, organization, and chunking aids retention. Retrieving memories requires cues to activate associated information stored across different memory systems. Over time, forgetting can occur due to failures at each stage of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. There are different types of memory including sensory memory (lasting 1 second), short-term memory (lasting 15-25 seconds), and long-term memory (permanent storage). Information is transferred from short-term to long-term memory through rehearsal, including repetition and elaborative techniques like connecting information to existing knowledge or organizing it logically. The brain forms networks of interconnecting memories over time through processes like memory consolidation and reconsolidation.
The study of human memory has been a subject of science and philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest within cognitive psychology.
But what exactly is memory? How are memories formed? The following overview offers a brief look at what memory is, how it works and how it is organized.
A comprehensive presentation explaining facts about various type of memory models, causes of amnesia, forgetting. Subject has been clarified with examples and illustrations.
Memory involves three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. There are three main memory stores: sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory briefly stores sensory inputs and information transfers to working memory with attention. Working memory actively processes information for around 30 seconds unless rehearsed. Information can then be encoded into long-term memory for indefinite storage. Memories can be forgotten due to encoding failures, interference, or decay over time if not accessed.
The document discusses teaching grammar, including identifying important elements and organizing the classroom. It describes the stages of a sample grammar lesson as present, practice, and produce. Key questions about teaching grammar and how learners need exposure, notice forms, understand meaning and use, practice, and remember items are discussed. Guided discovery techniques teachers can use like asking questions about meaning, context and form are outlined. The importance of allowing practice, speaking, and writing is emphasized.
This week focused on presenting vocabulary and giving instructions in the classroom. Students learned about techniques for teaching vocabulary including presenting the form, meaning and use of words. They also learned about eliciting vocabulary, checking comprehension, and practicing vocabulary. The assignment was to work in groups to prepare and do a microteaching lesson presenting the meaning, form, and checking comprehension of assigned words. Students were asked to reflect on their lesson, what went according to plan and could be improved, and what they learned from other groups.
"The experiment requires that you continue."
Participant: "I don't think I should go on."
Assistant: "It is absolutely essential that you continue. You have no other choice, you must go on."
participants continued to the highest shock
level (450 volts) if the experimenter insisted
they do so.
▪ Only about 1/3 defied the experimenter and
refused to continue at some point.
So obedience to authority was much higher
than predicted.
Week 3.2 Ethical Decision Making Process & Ethical Dilemma.pdfDr. Russell Rodrigo
This document discusses ethical decision making and dilemmas. It provides an overview of an ethical decision making process involving 7 steps: 1) determine facts, 2) identify ethical issues, 3) consider stakeholders, 4) consider alternatives, 5) consider consequences for stakeholders, 6) make a decision, 7) monitor outcomes. It then discusses an opening scenario involving finding an iPhone and asks questions to analyze it using the decision making process. Next, it explores why good people sometimes make bad decisions and examples of common ethical dilemmas.
The document provides an overview of marketing concepts including defining marketing, the marketing concept, marketing strategy, selecting a target market, identifying the market, segmenting the market, the marketing mix, developing products, marketing research, branding, packaging and labeling, and placing products. It discusses topics such as coming up with products and defining features/benefits, setting prices, identifying target markets, promoting awareness, distribution channels, and what intermediaries can do. Key areas of the marketing mix like product, price, place, and promotion are examined.
This document outlines a discussion on discrimination and harassment in the workplace. It begins with an introduction to the topic and provides definitions for discrimination, workplace harassment, and sexual harassment. Examples of different types of discriminatory and harassing behaviors are given. The document then poses discussion questions for employees to consider regarding protected classes, reporting inappropriate behaviors, and steps supervisors can take to address issues. Overall, the summary emphasizes that discrimination and harassment have no place in the workplace and that prevention, education, and addressing reports are important to maintain a respectful environment.
This document discusses workplace ethics and related topics covered in a university course. It includes:
1. An outline of topics covering ethical issues in the current workplace environment, parameters of the employment relationship, health and safety, and work ethic.
2. Descriptions of ethical issues facing workplaces today such as lack of employee loyalty and ethical lapses.
3. Discussions of defining legal and ethical boundaries of the employment relationship, and employers' duties regarding health and safety.
4. Explanations of the importance of developing a strong work ethic and traits of a good employee such as attendance, character, teamwork, and respect.
Week 8 Recruiting, Motivating & Keeping Quality Employees.pdfDr. Russell Rodrigo
The document discusses strategies for recruiting, motivating, and retaining quality employees. It covers topics such as:
- Performing job analyses to understand job requirements and develop job descriptions.
- Forecasting future hiring needs and beginning the recruiting process.
- Ensuring non-discrimination and equal opportunity in hiring.
- Training and developing new employees through orientation and ongoing learning.
- Theories about what motivates employees, such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory.
- Strategies for creating a motivating work environment, such as job enrichment, flexible schedules, and competitive pay.
This document discusses managing businesses for success. It covers key aspects of planning including developing a strategic plan, mission statements, core values, SWOT analysis, setting goals and objectives. Tactical and operational plans are developed to implement the strategic plan. The document also discusses organizing the business through different structures, directing employees with various leadership styles, controlling operations through a five-step process, and important managerial skills. Problem solving approaches are also outlined.
This document discusses different types of business ownership including sole proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations. It provides details on the key advantages and disadvantages of each structure. It also discusses what entrepreneurs are, characteristics of entrepreneurs, common industries for small businesses, and key steps for starting a new business such as developing a business plan. The document provides guidance on important questions to consider when deciding on a business idea and type of ownership.
- Nations trade to exploit their comparative advantages, focusing on producing what they do best and trading for other goods.
- A nation has a comparative advantage when it can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than other nations.
- To evaluate international trade, nations look at their balance of trade (exports - imports) and balance of payments (total inflows and outflows). If exports exceed imports, there is a trade surplus; if imports exceed exports, there is a trade deficit.
This document discusses business ethics and social responsibility. It defines ethics as how humans should properly live their lives and conduct themselves. The document discusses the importance of having a personal credo or code of ethics to guide decision making. It also discusses the concept of social responsibility and how businesses have obligations to various stakeholders like customers, employees, and society. The document provides examples of ethical dilemmas and questions people should consider to make ethical decisions.
This document provides an overview of Kantian ethics and deontology. It discusses how Kant believed that actions should be judged based on intentions and duties rather than consequences. The document outlines Kant's categorical imperative, which states that moral laws should be universalized and that people should always be treated as ends in themselves. It also notes some potential weaknesses of Kantian ethics, such as when duties may conflict and whether consequences are always irrelevant. The document then provides an example scenario about euthanasia to illustrate how a Kantian may analyze the issue.
This document provides an overview of business foundations concepts for students in an AGC450 course. It discusses the key participants in a business, the functional areas of business, and external forces that influence business activities. It also defines economics and the factors of production, and covers the basics of supply and demand, including how equilibrium price is determined by the interaction of supply and demand in a free market system. Key terms related to competition and different market structures are also introduced.
This document provides an introduction to ethical theories and traditions. It begins with an outline that lists introduction to ethical theories, religious ethics vs. philosophical ethics, and utilitarianism. It then defines ethics as knowing right from wrong and applying that in a business context. Acting ethically means being honest, avoiding harm, competing fairly, and prioritizing stakeholders over self-interest. The document introduces utilitarianism as an ethical tradition that directs people to maximize well-being and promote the greatest good for the greatest number. It notes that utilitarianism can be difficult to apply due to challenges in measuring and comparing consequences. The document provides examples of how utilitarian reasoning could evaluate issues like child labor.
This document provides an outline and explanation of adverb clauses. It begins by defining adverb clauses and their functions of answering how, where, when, why, to what extent, or under what condition. It then covers the five main types of adverb clauses: time, contrast, reason/purpose, reduced time clauses, and reduced reason clauses. For each type, it provides rules, examples, and exercises. It emphasizes that adverb clauses function like adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. It also notes that adverb clauses can be reduced by changing the subject to a gerund and omitting conjunction words. The document is intended to help students understand and identify different kinds of adverb clauses
This document contains information about object relative clauses including rules, examples, and exercises. It discusses how to form object relative clauses using pronouns like who, whom, which, and that. It provides examples of object relative clauses with and without prepositions. The document also contains practice exercises for readers to test their understanding of forming object relative clauses in different contexts.
This document provides an overview of subject relative clauses. It defines key terms like relative pronouns, relative clauses, and identifying vs. non-identifying relative clauses. It discusses the different types of relative pronouns used to introduce subject and object relative clauses, including who, that, which, and whose. Examples are provided to illustrate the different types of relative clauses. Exercises are included for the learner to practice identifying and constructing various relative clauses.
This document provides an overview of narratives in speeches and storytelling techniques. It discusses what makes a good storyteller and how to integrate storytelling into speeches. It then covers the key elements of narrative texts, including theme, setting, characters, point of view, plot, and more. Various structures for telling stories are presented, such as the hero's journey and rags to riches. Finally, the document discusses techniques for great storytelling from TED Talks, including being vulnerable, using examples, answering questions with anecdotes, and focusing the theme with props.
1. The document discusses various topics related to communication and public speaking, including different forms of communication, characteristics of public speaking, context and goals of speeches, benefits of public speaking skills, and challenges of public speaking compared to other forms of communication.
2. It provides information on active listening, including defining listening, relationships between listeners and speakers, obstacles to active listening, and strategies to become a more active listener such as setting goals and focusing on the speaker's main ideas.
3. The document poses discussion questions about concepts like listening, critical thinking, evaluating speeches, and strategies for active listening. It suggests considering the speaker, message, audience, and purpose when
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For more information about PECB:
Website: https://pecb.com/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/pecb/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/PECBInternational/
Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/PECBCERTIFICATION
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
3. § To retain useful skills, knowledge, and
expertise
§ To recognize familiar people and
places
§ To build our capacity to use language
§ To enjoy, share, and sustain culture
§ To build a sense of self that endures:
what do I believe, value, remember,
and understand?
§ To go beyond conditioning in learning
from experience, including lessons
from one’s past and from the
experiences of others
Why do we need to have memory?
4. Outline
§ Models of how memory works
§ Encoding, effortful and
automatic
§ Sensory, short-term, and
working memory
§ Long term storage, helped by
potentiation, the
hippocampus, and the
amygdala
§ Encoding failure, storage
decay, and retrieval failure
§ Memory construction,
misinformation, and source
amnesia
§ Tips and lessons for improving
memory
5. Three behaviors show that memory is functioning.
§ Recall is analogous to “fill-in-the-blank.” You retrieve
information previously learned and unconsciously stored.
§ Recognition is a form of “multiple choice.” You identify
which stimuli match your stored information.
§ Relearning is a measure of how much less work it takes
you to learn information you had studied before, even if
you don’t recall having seen the information before.
Studying Memory
Memory refers to the persistence of
learning over time, through the
storage and retrieval of information
and skills.
6. How Does Memory Work?
An Information-Processing Model
Here is a simplified description of how memory
works:
§ Encoding: the information
gets into our brains in a way
that allows it to be stored
§ Storage: the information is
held in a way that allows it to
later be retrieved
§ Retrieval: reactivating and
recalling the information,
producing it in a form similar
to what was encoded
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
10. What words do you see?
leaf paper seat tire car
fish rock wire wheel beach tree boy
radio
(13 words)
11. While I was walking through the woods
a rabbit ran across my path
(13 words)
12. Models of Memory Formation
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
(1968)
1. Stimuli are recorded by our
senses and held briefly in
sensory memory.
2. Some of this information is
processed into short-term
memory and encoded through
rehearsal .
3. Information then moves into
long-term memory where it
can be retrieved later.
Modifying the Model:
§ More goes on in short-
term memory besides
rehearsal; this is now
called working
memory.
§ Some information
seems to go straight
from sensory
experience into long-
term memory; this is
automatic processing.
13. Zooming In on the Model:
From Stimuli to Short-Term
Memory
§ Some of the stimuli we encounter are picked
up by our senses and processed by the sensory
organs. This generates information which
enters sensory memory.
§ Before this information vanishes from sensory
memory, we select details to pay attention to,
and send this information into working memory
for rehearsal and other processing.
14. Working Memory: Functions
Short-term memory integrates information from long-term
memory with new information coming in from sensory memory.
The short-term memory is “working” in many ways.
§ It holds information not just to rehearse it , but to process it (such
as hearing a word problem in math and doing it in your head).
Auditory
rehearsal
repeating a
password to
memorize it
Executive
functions
choosing what to
attend to,
respond to
Visospatial
“sketchpad”
rearranging room
furniture in your
mind
15. Dual-Track Processing:
Explicit and Implicit Memories
Some memories are formed without
going through all the Atkinson-
Shiffrin stages. These are implicit
memories, the ones we are not fully
aware of and thus don’t
“declare”/talk about.
Our minds acquire this information
through effortful processing.
Explicit memories are formed
through studying, rehearsing,
thinking, processing, and then
storing information in long-term
memory.
These memories are typically formed
through automatic processing.
Implicit memories are formed without
our awareness that we are building a
memory, and without rehearsal or
other processing in working memory.
So far, we have been talking
about explicit/ “declarative”
memories. These are facts
and experiences that we can
consciously know and recall.
16. Automatic Processing
Some experiences go directly to long-term implicit memory
§ procedural memory, such as knowing how to ride a bike, and well-
practiced knowledge such as word meanings
§ conditioned associations, such as a smell that triggers thoughts of a
favorite place
§ information about space, such as being able to picture where things
are after walking through a room
§ information about time, such as retracing a sequence of events if you
lost something
§ information about frequency, such as thinking, “I just noticed that this
is the third texting driver I’ve passed today.”
Some experiences are processed automatically into implicit memory,
without any effortful/working memory processing:
17. The Encoding and
Processing of Memory:
Sensory Memory
§ We very briefly capture a sensory memory, analogous to an echo or
an image, of all the sensations we take in.
§ How brief? Sensory memory consists of about a 3 to 4 second echo,
or a 1/20th of a second image.
§ Evidence of auditory sensory memory, called “echoic” memory, can
occur after someone says, “what did I just say?” Even if you weren’t
paying attention, you can retrieve about the last eight words from
echoic memory.
Sensory memory refers to the
immediate, very brief recording
of sensory information before it is
processed into short-term,
working, or long-term memory.
18. Evidence of Visual Sensory (Iconic) Memory:
George Sperling’s Experiments
§ George Sperling (b. 1934)
exposed people to a 1/20th
of-a-second view of a grid
of letters, followed by a
tone which told them
which row of letters to pull
from iconic memory and
recall.
§ Without the tone, people
recalled about 50 percent
of the letters; with the
tone, recall for any of the
rows was typically 100
percent.
J Y Q
P G S
V F M
To simulate Sperling’s
experiment, notice the three
rows of letters below. Based
on the color of the letters,
you will know that you must
recall one of the following
rows:
top, middle or bottom.
19. Encoding Memory
Capacity of Short-Term
and Working Memory
§ If some information is selected
from sensory memory to be sent
to short-term memory, how much
information can we hold there?
§ George Miller (b. 1920) proposed
that we can hold 7 +/-2
information bits (for example, a
string of 5 to 9 letters).
§ More recent research suggests
that the average person, free from
distraction, can hold about:
§ 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words.
Working Memory, which
uses rehearsal, focus,
analysis, linking, and
other processing, has
greater capacity than
short-term memory. The
capacity of working
memory varies; some
people have better
concentration.
Test: see how many of
these letters and
numbers you can recall
after they disappear.
No need for a hyphen
before the V.
Test:
– V M 3 C A Q 9 L D
20. Duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)
Lloyd Peterson and Margaret
Peterson wanted to know the
duration of short term memory?
Their experiment (1959):
1. People were given triplets of
consonants (e.g., “VMF”).
2. To prevent rehearsing, the
subjects had to do a distracting
task.
3. People were then tested at
various times for recall.
Result: After 12 seconds, most
memory of the consonants had
decayed and could not be retrieved.
21. Encoding:
Effortful Processing Strategies
If we have short-term recall of
only 7 letters, but can remember
5 words, doesn’t that mean we
could remember more than 7
letters if we could group them
into words?
§ This is an example of an
effortful processing strategy, a
way to encode information into
memory to keep it from decaying
and make it easier to retrieve.
§ Effortful processing is also
known as studying.
Examples:
§ Chunking (grouping)
§ Mnemonics: images,
maps, and peg-words
§ Hierarchies/categories
§ Rehearsal, especially
distributed practice
§ Deep processing
§ Semantic processing
§ Making information
personally meaningful
à Can you remember this
list?
22. Effortful Processing Strategies
Chunking
§ Why are credit card numbers broken into groups of
four digits? Four “chunks” are easier to encode
(memorize) and recall than 16 individual digits.
à Memorize: ACPCVSSUVROFLNBAQ XIDKKFCFBIANA
§ Chunking: organizing data into manageable units
XID KKF CFB IAN AAC PCV S SU VRO FNB AQ
• Chunking works even better if we can assemble
information into meaningful groups:
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
X IDK KFC FBI BA NAACP CVS SUV ROFL NBA Q
23. Mnemonics
§ Read: plane, cigar, due,
shall, candy, vague,
pizza, seem, fire, pencil
§ Which words might be
easier to remember?
§ Write down the words
you can recall.
§ Lesson: we encode
better with the help of
images.
Effortful Processing Strategies
A mnemonic is a memory “trick”
that connects information to
existing memory strengths such
as imagery or structure.
A peg word system refers to the
technique of visually associating
new words with an existing list
that is already memorized along
with numbers. For example,
“due” can be pictured written on
a door, and door = 4.
24. Hierarchies/Categories
We are more likely to recall a concept if we encode it in
a hierarchy, a branching/nested set of categories and
sub-categories. Below is an example of a hierarchy, using
some of the concepts we have just seen.
Effortful Processing Strategies
26. Rehearsal and Distributed Practice
§ The spacing effect was first noted by
Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 1800s.
You will develop better retention and
recall, especially in the long run, if you
use the same amount of study time
spread out over many shorter sessions.
§ This doesn’t mean you have to study
every day. Memory researcher Harry
Bahrick noted that the longer the time
between study sessions, the better the
long-term retention, and the fewer
sessions you need!
Effortful Processing Strategies
The best way to
practice? Consider
the
testing effect. Henry
Roediger (b. 1947)
found that if your
distributed practice
includes testing
(having to answer
questions about the
material), you will
learn more and retain
more than if you
merely reread.
Massed Practice refers to cramming information all at once.
It is not time-effective.
27. When encoding information, we are more likely to retain it
if we deeply process even a simple word list by focusing
on the semantics (meaning) of the words.
“Shallow,”
unsuccessful
processing
refers to
memorizing
the
appearance or
sound of
words.
Deep/Semantic Processing
Effortful Processing Strategies
28. § We can memorize a set of instructions more easily if we
figure out what they mean rather than seeing them as set
of words.
§ Memorizing meaningful material takes one tenth the
effort of memorizing nonsense syllables.
§ Actors memorize lines (and students memorize poems)
more easily by deciding on the feelings and meanings
behind the words, so one line flows naturally to the next.
§ The self-reference effect, relating material to ourselves,
aids encoding and retention.
§ Now try again, but this time, consider how each word
relates to you.
Making Information
Personally
Meaningful
Effortful Processing Strategies Memorize the following
words:
bold truck temper
green run drama
glue chips knob
hard vent rope
29. Memory Storage:
Capacity and Location
§ The brain is NOT like a hard drive.
Memories are NOT in isolated files,
but are in overlapping neural
networks.
§ The brain’s long-term memory
storage does not get full; it gets
more elaborately rewired and
interconnected.
§ Parts of each memory can be
distributed throughout the brain.
à Memory of a particular ‘kitchen
table’ may be a linkage among
networks for ‘kitchen,’ ‘meal,’
‘wooden,’ ‘home,’ ‘legs,’ and ‘sit.’
Karl Lashley (1890-
1958) showed that
rats who had learned
a maze retained parts
of that memory, even
when various small
parts of their brain
were removed.
30. Memory Processing in The Brain
If memory is stored throughout the brain, how
does it get in there, and how do we retrieve it and
use it?
§ There are different storage and
retrieval/activation systems in the brain for
explicit/ declarative memory and for
implicit/ procedural memory.
§ When emotions become involved, yet another
part of the brain can mark/flag some
memories for quicker retrieval.
§ The storage occurs by changing how neurons
link to each other in order to make some well-
used neural networks of neurons easier to
activate together.
31. Explicit Memory Processing
§ Retrieval and use of explicit memories, which is
in part a working memory or executive function,
is directed by the frontal lobes.
§ Encoding and storage of explicit memories is
facilitated by the hippocampus. Events and
facts are held there for a couple of days before
consolidating, moving to other parts of the brain
for long-term storage. Much of this consolidation
occurs during sleep.
Explicit/declarative memories include
facts, stories, and meanings of words such
as the first time riding a bike, or facts about
types of bicycles.
32. The Brain Stores Reactions and Skills
Implicit Memory Processing
Implicit memories include
skills, procedures, and
conditioned associations.
§ The cerebellum (“little brain”)
forms and stores our
conditioned responses. We can
store a phobic response even if
we can’t recall how we acquired
the fear.
§ The basal ganglia, next to the thalamus, controls movement, and
forms and stores procedural memory and motor skills. We can
learn to ride a bicycle even if we can’t recall having the lesson.
33. Infantile Amnesia
§ Implicit memory from infancy can be
retained, including skills and
conditioned responses. However,
explicit memories, our recall for
episodes, only goes back to about age
3 for most people.
§ This nearly 3-year “blank” in our
memories has been called infantile
amnesia.
Explanation?
• Encoding: the memories were not stored well because the
hippocampus is one of the last brain areas to develop.
• Forgetting/retrieval: the adult mind thinks more in a linear
verbal narrative and has trouble accessing preverbal memories
as declarative memories.
34. Emotions and Memory
§ Strong emotions,
especially stress, can
strengthen memory
formation.
§ Flashbulb memories refer
to emotionally intense
events that become
“burned in” as a vivid-
seeming memory.
§ Note that flashbulb
memories are not as
accurate as they feel.
§ Vividly storing information
about dangers may have
helped our ancestors
survive.
35. Emotions, Stress Hormones,
the Amygdala, and Memory
How does intense emotion cause the
brain to form intense memories?
1. Emotions can trigger a rise in
stress hormones.
2. These hormones trigger activity in
the amygdala, located next to the
memory-forming hippocampus.
3. The amygdala increases memory-
forming activity and engages the
frontal lobes and basal ganglia to
“tag” the memories as important.
As a result, the memories are
stored with more sensory and
emotional details.
§ These details can trigger a
rapid, unintended recall of
the memory.
§ Traumatized people can
have intrusive recall that is
so vivid that it feels like re-
experiencing the event.
36. Brain processing of memory
Synaptic Changes
When sea slugs or people form memories, their
neurons release neurotransmitters to other
neurons across the synapses, the junctions
between neurons.
§ With repetition, the synapses undergo long-term potentiation;
signals are sent across the synapse more efficiently.
§ Synaptic changes include a reduction in the prompting needed to
send a signal, and an increase in the number of neurotransmitter
receptor sites (below, right)
37. Messing with Long-Term
Potentiation
§ Chemicals and shocks that
prevent long-term potentiation
(LTP) can prevent learning and
even erase recent learning.
§ Preventing LTP keeps new
memories from consolidating
into long-term memories. For
example, mice forget how to
run a maze.
§ Drugs that boost LTP help mice
learn a maze more quickly and
with fewer mistakes.
39. Lessons from each of
these
demonstrations:
1. our storage and
recall capacity is
virtually unlimited
2. our capacity for
recognition is
greater than our
capacity for recall
3. relearning can
highlight that
memories are
there even if we
can’t recall
forming them
Memory Retrieval
§ Recall: some people, through
practice, visual strategies, or
biological differences, have the
ability to store and recall thousands
of words or digits, reproducing
them years later
§ Recognition: the average person
can view 2500 new faces and
places, and later can notice with 90
percent accuracy which ones
they’ve seen before
§ Relearning: some people are
unable to form new memories,
especially of episodes; although
they would not recall a puzzle-
solving lesson, they might still solve
the puzzle faster each lesson
40. Recognition Test: What is This
Object?
§ Even though it is
obscured by six
layers of scribble
lines, those of you
who glanced in a
corner of the first
slide of the
chapter may
recognize this.
§ Any simple
multiple choice
question is also a
recognition test .
41. Relearning Time
as a Measure of Retention
§ In the late 1800s, Hermann
Ebbinghaus studied another
measure of memory
functioning: how much time
does it take to relearn and
regain mastery of material?
§ He studied the
memorization of nonsense
syllables (THB YOX KVU
EHM) so that depth of
processing or prelearning
would not be a factor.
§ The more times he
rehearsed out loud on day
1, the less time he needed
to relearn/memorize the
same letters on day 2.
42. Retrieval Cues
§ Retrieval
challenge:
memory is not
stored as a file
that can be
retrieved by
searching
alphabetically.
§ Instead, it is
stored as a web
of associations:
§ conceptual
§ contextual
§ emotional Memory involves a web of associated concepts.
43. Priming:
Retrieval is Affected by Activating our Associations
§ Priming triggers a thread of
associations that bring us to a
concept, just as a spider feels
movement in a web and
follows it to find the bug.
§ Our minds work by having
one idea trigger another; this
maintains a flow of thought.
Priming Example: Define the
word “bark.”
Now what is the definition of
“bark”?
44. Study: people primed with a
missing child poster then
misinterpreted ambiguous
adult-child interactions as
kidnapping.
The Power of Priming
§ Priming has been called
“invisible memory”
because it affects us
unconsciously.
§ In the case of tree
“bark” vs. dog “bark,”
the path we follow in
our thoughts can be
channeled by priming.
§ We may have biases
and associations stored
in memory that also
influence our choices.
Study: People primed with
money-related words were
less likely to then help
another person.
Study: Priming with an
image of Santa Claus
led kids to share more
candy.
45. Context-Dependent
Memory
§ Part of the web of
associations of a memory is
the context. What else was
going on at the time we
formed the memory?
§ We retrieve a memory
more easily when in the
same context as when we
formed the memory.
à Did you forget a
psychology concept? Just
sitting down and opening
your book might bring the
memory back.
Words learned
underwater are better
retrieved underwater.
46. State-Dependent
Memory
§ Our memories are not just
linked to the external
context in which we
learned them.
§ Memories can also be tied
to the emotional state we
were in when we formed
the memory.
§ Mood-congruent
memory refers to the
tendency to selectively
recall details that are
consistent with one’s
current mood.
à This biased memory
then reinforces our
current mood!
Memories can even be linked
to physiological states:
“I wonder if you’d mind giving
me directions. I’ve never been
sober in this part of town
before.”
47. In what situation is the
recency effect strongest?
The Serial Position Effect
Priming and context cues
are not the only factors
which make memory
retrieval selective.
Which words of your national
anthem are easiest to recall?
The serial position effect
refers to the tendency,
when learning
information in a long list,
to more likely recall the
first items (primacy
effect) and the last items
(recency effect).
48. Forgetting is not always a bad thing
What would that feel like?
Would there be any problems?
§ If we remembered
everything, maybe we could
not prioritize the important
memories.
§ We might have difficulty
thinking abstractly and
making connections if our
brain was devoted to
compiling isolated bits of
information.
What leads to forgetting?
• brain damage
• encoding failure
• storage decay
• retrieval failure
• interference
• motivated forgetting
Wouldn’t it be good to have brains that stored information
like a computer does, so we could easily retrieve any
stored item and not just the ones we rehearse?
49. “Forgetfulness is a form of
freedom.”
Khalil Gibran
§ Jill Price (b. 1965) has
hyperthymesia; she not only
recalls everything, but is unable to
forget anything.
§ For Jill, both the important and
the mundane are always
accessible, forming a “running
movie” of images and information
that run simultaneously with
current stimuli.
§ She has said, “I’ll be talking to
someone and [also] seeing
something else….”
Jill Price, patient “A.J.”
Another possible problem if we were unable to forget:
we might not focus well on current stimuli because of
intrusive memories.
50. The Brain and the Two-Track Mind: The
Case of Henry Molaison (“H.M.”)
§ In 1953, the removal of
H.M.’s hippocampus at age
27 ended his seizures, but
also ended his ability to
form new explicit
memories.
§ H.M. could learn new skills,
procedures, locations of
objects, and games, but
had no memory of the
lessons or the instructors.
Why?
§ H.M. also retained
memories from before the
surgery. What is his
condition called?
H.M., like another such patient,
“Jimmy,” could not understand why his
face looked older than 27 in the mirror.
Why not?
51. Studying Brain Damage and
Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia refers to the inability to retrieve
memory of the past.
“H.M.” and “Jimmy” suffered from hippocampus damage
and removal causing anterograde amnesia, an inability to
form new long-term declarative memories.
§They had no sense that time had passed since the brain
damage. While they were not forming new declarative
memories, encoding was still happening in other
processing “tracks.”
§Jimmy and H.M. could still learn how to get places
(automatic processing), could learn new skills (procedural
memory), and acquire conditioned responses
§However, they could not remember any experiences
which created these implicit memories.
52. The Two Types of Amnesia
§ Retrograde amnesia can
be caused by head injury
or emotional trauma and is
often temporary.
§ It can also be caused by
more severe brain
damage; in that case, it
may include anterograde
amnesia.
§ H.M. and Jimmy lived with
no memories of life after
surgery.
§ See also the movie
Memento. Most other
movie amnesia is
retrograde amnesia.
Retrograde amnesia
refers to an inability to
retrieve memory of the
past.
Anterograde amnesia refers
to an inability to form new
long-term declarative/
explicit memories.
53. Penny Memory Test
Retrieval test: what words and numbers, in which
locations, are on the front of a U.S. one cent coin? This
should be easy because it was in the book.
Recognition test: choose the correct design from
among these pictures:
Which of these has the design of an actual U.S. cent?
54. § If we got the penny image wrong, did
we fail to retrieve the information?
Encoding Failure
§ It could be that we never paid attention to the penny
details and didn’t select them from sensory memory to
hold in working memory.
§ Even if we once looked at the penny and paid attention
to it, we still didn’t bother rehearsing it and encoding it
into long term memory.
55. Storage Decay
§ Material encoded into
long term memory will
decay if the memory is
never used, recalled, and
re-stored.
§ Decay is LTP in reverse
(or like pruning). Unused
connections and
networks wither while
well-used memory
traces are maintained.
§ Decay tends to level off.
Memory for both
nonsense syllables and
Spanish lessons decays
rapidly.
§ However, what hasn’t
decayed quickly tends
to stay intact long-term.
56. Tip of the Tongue: Retrieval Failure
§ Sometimes, the memory itself does not decay. Instead,
what decays are the associations and links that help us
find our way to the stored memory.
§ As a result, some stored memories seem just below the
surface: “I know the name...it starts with a B maybe…”
§ To prevent retrieval failure when storing and rehearsing
memories, you can build multiple associations, linking
images, rhymes, categories, lists, and cues.
57. Interference and Positive Transfer
§ Another downside of not forgetting is that old and new
memories can interfere with each other, making it difficult
to store new memories and retrieve old ones.
§ Occasionally, the opposite happens. In positive transfer,
old information (like algebra) makes it easier to learn
related new information (like calculus).
§ Proactive interference occurs when past information
interferes (in a forward-acting way) with learning new
information.
§ You have many strong memories of a previous
principal, and this memory makes it difficult to learn the
new principal’s name.
§ You had to change email passwords, but you keep
typing the old one and can’t seem to memorize the
new one.
58. Retroactive Interference and Sleep
§ In one study,
students who
studied right before
eight hours of sleep
had better recall
than those who
studied before eight
hours of daily
activities.
§ The daily activities
retroactively
interfered with the
morning’s learning.
Retroactive interference occurs
when new stimuli/learning
interferes with the storage and
retrieval of previously formed
memories.
59. Creating, Storing, and
Retrieving Passwords
§ Passwords need to be
stored in our memory. For
security, passwords
should be different and a
mix of numbers and
symbols at least 10 digits
long. How can we
remember so many
passwords?
§ Store them on our
computers and in our
wallets to keep them
safe?
Password Strategies
1. Use familiar
retrieval cues
without being too
obvious.
2. Minimize
interference by
repeating
passwords or
patterns.
3. Rehearse
passwords
regularly.
60. Motivated Forgetting
§ Memory is fallible and changeable,
but can we practice motivated
forgetting, that is, choosing to forget
or to change our memories?
§ Sigmund Freud believed that we
sometimes make an unconscious
decision to bury our anxiety-
provoking memories and hide them
from conscious awareness. He
called this repression.
§ New techniques of psychotherapy
and medication interventions may
allow us to “erase” (prevent
reconsolidation of) recalled
memories.
Motivated forgetting is
not common. More
often:
1. recall is full of errors.
2. people try not to
think about painful
memories. If they fail
to rehearse those
memories, the
memories can fade.
62. Why is our memory full of errors?
§ Memory not only gets forgotten,
but it gets constructed
(imagined, selected, changed, and
rebuilt).
§ Memories are altered every time
we “recall” (actually, reconstruct)
them. Then they are altered
again when we reconsolidate
the memory (using working
memory to send them into long
term storage).
§ Later information alters earlier
memories.
§ No matter how accurate and
video-like our memory seems, it
is full of alterations.
Ways in which our
memory ends up
being an inaccurate
guide to the past:
the misinformation
effect
imagination inflation
source amnesia
déjà vu
implanted memories
63. The Misinformation Effect:
In 1974, Elizabeth Loftus and John
Palmer asked people to watch a
video of a minor car accident.
The participants were then asked,
“How fast were cars going when
they hit each other?”
Incorporating misleading information into one’s
memory of an event.
Those who were asked, “...when
the cars smashed into each
other?” reported higher speeds
and remembered broken glass
that wasn’t there.
Actual accident Misremembered accident
64. In a study by Elizabeth Loftus, people were
asked to provide details of a incident in
childhood when they had been lost in a
shopping mall.
Even though there actually had been no such
incident, by trying to picture details, most people
came to believe that the incident had actually
happened.
In one study, students were told a false story
that spoiled egg salad had made them ill in
childhood. As a result, many students became
[even] less likely to eat egg salad sandwiches in
the future.
Implanted Memories
Imagination
Inflation
§ Simply picturing
an event can
make it seem
like a real
memory.
§ Once we have an
inaccurate
memory, we
tend to add
more imagined
details, as
perhaps we do
for all memories.
§ Why does this
happen?
Visualizing and
actually seeing
an event activate
similar brain
areas.
Lessons:
1. By trying to help someone recall a
memory, you may implant a memory.
2. You can’t tell how real a memory is by
how real it feels.
65. Source Amnesia/Misattribution
Have you ever discussed
a childhood memory with
a family member only to
find that the memory was:
§ from a movie you saw,
or book you read?
§ from a story someone
told you about your
childhood, but they
were kidding?
§ from a dream you used
to have?
§ from a sibling’s
experience?
If so, your
memory for the
event may have
been accurate,
but you
experienced
source amnesia:
forgetting where
the story came
from, and
attributing the
source to your
own experience.
66. Déjà vu (“Already seen”)
§ Déjà vu refers to the feeling that you’re in a situation that
you’ve seen or have been in before.
§ In an experiment in the text, students got this feeling,
because they actually were shown an image previously.
§ However, we can feel very certain that we’ve seen a
situation before even when we have not. This can be
seen as source amnesia: a memory (from current sensory
memory) that we misattribute as being from long term
memory.
§ Why does this happen? Sometimes our sense of
familiarity and recognition kicks in too soon, and our
brain explains this as being caused by prior experience.
67. Constructed Memories...
in Court and in Love
§ Television courtroom shows make it look like there is often false
testimony because people are intentionally lying.
§ However, it is more common that there is mistaken testimony. People
are trying to tell the truth but are overconfident about their fallible
memories, not realizing that memories are constructions.
§ We tend to alter our memories
to fit our current views; this
explains why hindsight bias
feels like telling the truth.
§ When “in love,” we
overestimate our first
attraction; after a breakup, we
recall being able to tell it
wouldn’t work.
68. Constructed Memories
and Children
§ With less time for their memories to
become distorted, kids can be trusted
to report accurately, right?
§ Actually, because kids have
underdeveloped frontal lobes, they
are even more prone to implanted
memories.
§ In one study, children who were
asked what happened when an
animal escaped in a classroom had
vivid memories of the escape… which
had not occurred.
§ For kids, even more than adults,
imagined events are hard to
differentiate from experienced
events.
§ Lesson: when interviewing kids, don’t
LEAD; be neutral and nonsuggestive
in your questions.
§ Sexual abuse memories can
be trusted because they are
flashbulb memories, right?
§ Yes, if they are real.,
However, in one study, right
after a doctor gave a child
an anatomically correct
doll, half of the children
reported genital touching
when none had occurred.
69. § “False” memories, implanted
by leading questions, may not
be lies. People reporting
events that didn’t happen
usually believe they are
telling the truth.
§ Questioners who
inadvertently implant
memories in others are
generally not trying to create
memories to get others in
trouble.
§ As a result, unjust false
accusations sometimes
happen, even if no one
intended to cause the
injustice.
Recovered Memories of Past Abuse
§ Can people recover memories
that are so thoroughly repressed as
to be forgotten?
§ Abuse memories are more likely
to be “burned in” to memory than
forgotten.
§ Forgotten memories of minor
events do reappear
spontaneously, usually through
cues (accidental reminders).
§ An active process of searching for
such memories, however, is more
likely to create detailed memories
that feel real.
70. Understanding Reports of Past Abuse
§ While true repressed/recovered memories may be rare,
unreported memories of abuse are common.
§ Whether to cope or to prevent conflict, many people try to get
their minds off memories of abuse. They do not rehearse these
memories, and sometimes the abuse memory fades.
§ Because of the infantile amnesia effect, memories of events
before age 3 are likely to be constructions. This refers to both false
reports AND missed reports of abuse.
§ There is no clear way to tell when someone has actually been
abused.
§ An implanted, constructed memory can be just as troubling, and
more confusing, than a memory from direct experience.
71. Applying what we’ve learned about memory
Improving Memory to Improve Grades
Ways to
save overall
studying
time, and
build more
reliable
memory.
Learn the material in more than one way, not just by rote, but
by creating many retrieval cues.
Minimize interference with related material or fun activities;
study right before sleep or other mindless activity.
Have multiple study sessions, spaced further and further
apart after first learning the material.
Spend your study sessions activating your retrieval cues
including context (recalling where you were when learning the
material).
Test yourself in study sessions: 1) to practice doing retrieval as
if taking a test, and 2) to overcome the overconfidence error:
the material seems familiar, but can you explain it in your own
words?
§ Think of examples and connections (meaningful depth).
§ Create mnemonics: songs, images, and lists.
72. Sources
• Myers, D., G. (2013). Psychology, 10th Edition. New York: Worth
Publishers.
• https://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/part/chapter-8-remembering-and-
judging/