This document summarizes research on flashbulb memories. Flashbulb memories are highly vivid and accurate memories of learning about a shocking event. Three key studies are discussed: 1) Brown and Kulik (1977) found people had detailed memories of learning about the JFK assassination. However, they did not verify memory accuracy. 2) Neisser and Harsh (1992) found major differences between initial accounts and a 2.5 year follow-up of memories of the Challenger explosion, questioning the accuracy of flashbulb memories over time. 3) Phelps et al. (2006) found those who witnessed 9/11 up close had more emotional memories and brain activity related to the event compared to

1. Flashbulb Memories

2. Learning Outcomes
 C12- Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one
cognitive function.
 C10- Evaluate the extent to which a cognitive process is
reliable.

3. Warm-Up
Think of a time when you heard emotional or
surprising news.
 Where were you?
 What were you doing?
 Who told you?
 How did you feel?
 How did they feel?
 How confident are you in your memory?

4. Brown and Kulik (1977)
Flashbulb Memories
 Highly accurate and exceptionally vivid memories when
learning about a shocking event.
 Episodic Memories (explicit memories) that are highly resistant to
forgetting because of the emotional arousal at the moment of
encoding.
 “Flashbulb”  Memory registers like a photograph
 Importance and arousal lead to rehearsal

5. Elements of a Flashbulb Memory
Place (where they were when the incident
happened)
Ongoing Activity (what they were doing)
Informant (who broke the news)
Own affect (how they felt)
 Others’ affect (how others felt)
Aftermath (importance of the event)

6. Tragedies…

7. Triumph

8. Brown and Kulik (1977) Study
Aim: To investigate whether shocking events
are recalled more vividly and accurately than
other events.
Method: Asked 80 participants to recall
circumstances of learned shocking events.
Findings/Conclusions: Participants had vivid
memories about where they were, what they
were doing, how they felt about JFK
assassination.
 More likely for unexpected & personally relevant
events.

9. Example…My Mom
 JFK Assassination: November 22, 1963 (51 years ago
tomorrow!)

10. Limitations of Brown and Kulik
(1977)
They asked people to recall…no way
of testing whether those memories are
correct.
Generally seen as emotionally
accurate but not the details.

11. Neisser and Harsh (1992)
Aim: To test the theory of flashbulb memory by
investigating to what extent memories about
the challenger explosion would be accurate
after a period of time.
Challenger Disaster
Method:
 106 students completed a questionnaire explaining
details about finding out about the Challenger.
(Within 24 hours of event)
 2.5 years later, 44 students answered the
questionnaire again. Listed 1-5 on how confident they
were about their memories.

12. Neisser and Harsh (1992)
Findings:
There were major differences between the
original questionnaire and the follow-up. (Avg
accuracy: 2.95 of 7)
 Level of confidence was 4.17
Conclusion: Flashbulb Memories are not as
accurate Brown and Kulik predicted.
Critical Thinking

13. Evaluation
+ Natural environment
- Importance of the event could have been
different for different people.

14. C10 - Phelps et al. (2006)
Aim: To investigate the neurological activity
while recalling a flashbulb memory.
Method:
 Three years following the 9/11 attacks, used
fMRI to measure brain activity when recalling an
autobiographical memory and the memory of the
9/11 attacks.
Two groups:
 Downtown (near the attack)
 Midtown (5 miles away from the attack)

15. Phelps et al. (2006)
Findings:
Downtown group remembered more information
about the attacks.
Those near the attack experienced activity in
their amygdala when recalling the event while
those who were not as near did not show any
difference between 9/11 and their other
memories.
Conclusions: The witnessing of an event bring
more emotional memories and thus create
lasting memories of shocking events.

16. Portfolio Possibility
Compare the results of your interview about
9/11 with the results from the studies we
have discussed today and/or the articles
found at This Link.
You could also use this information to
evaluate one of your own memories.

17. Evaluate Flashbulb Memories
 Weigh the strengths and limitations of the Theory of
Flashbulb Memories.
 What are the strengths of the theory? What does it explain well?
 What are the limitations of the theory?
 What studies can we use to back up or question this theory?