This document summarizes key aspects of working memory. It defines working memory as the system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex cognitive tasks. The central executive controls attention and monitors thinking/memory processes. There are two storage systems - the visuospatial sketchpad handles visual information and the phonological loop rehearses verbal information. Research indicates people can process around 7 units of information at once, though this varies by task. The modal model proposes separate auditory and visual processing pathways to help "stretch" working memory capacity.
the presentation is about the encoding, capacity, retention duration, forgetting and retrieval of information in long term memory. it also introduce several studies done
lecture 20 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, Loftus, eyewitness memory
the presentation is about the encoding, capacity, retention duration, forgetting and retrieval of information in long term memory. it also introduce several studies done
lecture 20 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, Loftus, eyewitness memory
Presentation on Child and Adult Attachment Theory. Also includes result of a small survey done with my friends. Part of the 'Personality and Development' course at IIT Delhi
Human memory, like memory in a computer, allows us to store information for later use.It seems that as much as we do remember, we forget even more. Forgetting isn’t really all that bad, and is in actuality, a pretty natural phenomenon. Imagine if you remembered every minute detail of every minute or every hour, of every day during your entire life, no matter how good, bad, or insignificant
The Learning and Memory ConnectionKimberly Kocak, Pamela Fogle.docxcherry686017
The Learning and Memory Connection
Kimberly Kocak, Pamela Foglesong, Brianna Duda, Lizette Villavicencio, Maisha Wade
PSY/340
June 8, 2015
Dr. Purvi Patel
Memory and Learning
Memory and learning perform a complicated dance involving multiple areas of the brain. Memory and Learning can be affected by numerous events from Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), disease and stress, just to name a few. Memory is implicit for learning but we have many different kinds of memory and learning. We have implicit memory, explicit memory, procedural memory, episodic memory, long-term and short-term, sensory, sematic and working memories. Each play a role in how we learn and interact with the world and view our past, present and future. In this presentation we will explore some of the interactions between memory and learning, look at a few case studies and talk about types of treatments that are available, depending on the area and extent of damage to certain parts of the brain.
http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/03/12/stress-affects-learning-and-memory/2031.html/ Image
2
Neuroanatomy of Learning and Memory
How do we learn?
Amygdala: An almond shaped mass of nuclei that is associated with emotions, aggression, and memory. The amygdala receives input about stimuli associated by learning with primary reinforcers.
Hippocampus: The hippocampus is useful in learning a certain amount of information. According to Rolls (2000), “the hippocampus does appear to be necessary to learn certain types of information, which have been characterized as declarative, or knowing that, as contrasted or procedural, or knowing how, which is pared in amnesia.”
Learning is a behavior, in which an individual acquires information. Learning is obtaining knowledge, in which the brain is able to retain and store away. In order for knowledge to be stored away, it needs memory, so, without memory, learning would not be possible. “Not only does the amygdala receive information about primary reinforcers (such as taste and touch), but it also receives inputs about stimuli (e.g. visual ones) that can be associated by learning with primary reinforcers” (Rolls, 2000). Primary reinforcers are used within operant conditioning (learning technique), which are used as a reward for a specific behavior. Primary reinfrocers do not need to be learned, meaning, they come naturally.
3
Neuroanatomy of Learning and Memory
How do we remember?
The limbic system is important in the role of learning and memory. The two major parts of the limbic system responsible for memory include: amygdala and hippocampus.
“Small to moderate amounts of cortisol activate the amygdala and hippocampus, where they enhance the storage and consolidation of recent experiences” (Kalat, 2013). Cortisol is an important part of storing memories.
The limbic system is located ...
Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of information.
Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of the past we cannot operate in the present or think about the future. We would not be able to remember what we did yesterday, what we have done today or what we plan to do tomorrow.
Without memory we could not learn anything.
Memory is involved in processing vast amounts of information.
This information takes many different forms, e.g. images, sounds or meaning.
The purpose of this study was to analyze cognitive memory models in humans. This
research uses literature study method. The results and conclusions obtained from this study
are that memory is a complex and varied phenomenon, with memory it will make an
individual’s life feel sustainable, which means humans can relate what happened in the past
with the conditions experienced now. Memory has several stages, namely encoding, storage,
and recall. With music therapy in post-traumatic amnesia patients the abilities that a person
has and do not require conscious processing. The way implicit memory works is by recalling information related to an event or an object that affects actions and thoughts that are carried
out unconsciously. Memory itself has several types of models such as sensory memory, shortterm memory, long-term memory, implicit memory, explicit memory, and flashbulb memory.
With learning about various memory models, it is hoped that individuals will understand more and increase knowledge about memory and remembering.
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2. “The brain system that provides temporary
storage and manipulation of the information
necessary for complex cognitive tasks such as
learning, language comprehension, and
reasoning” (Baddeley, 1992).
3. Working memory is an active process where
information is manipulated and processed, it is
not stored here (only temporarily).
Working memory & short term memory are “highly
related constructs”, but have important differences
(Engle et. al, 326).
Some research has shown a limit to the amount
of information that can be processed.
4. George A. Miller (1956) found that most
individuals have the capacity to remember
seven “units” plus or minus two.
However, this number was found to be
variable, depending on the task and the
participants.
10. Central Executive: attention-controlling
system.
Controls & monitors overall thinking and memory
processes
Two separate storage systems:
1. Visuo-spatial sketch pad: manipulates visual
information.
1. Phonological loop: rehearses verbal information.
Can keep a small amount of auditory information
fresh through repetition (Ormrod, 199).
11. The prefrontal cortex gets
information from other parts
of the cortex and keeps it for
available for immediate use.
The central executive allows
us to switch between
information from any of the
senses.
When you make a decision the
CE is sorting & reasoning
through previously stored
information in LTM as well as
new information being
processed.
12. Learning the alphabet
Completing a puzzle
Reading comprehension
Mental arithmetic
Word problems
Writing essays
Studying for an exam
Keeping focus/interest during a lecture
13. Mayer and Moreno (1998) gave 78 psychology
undergraduates a short lesson on meteorology
The lesson included pictures either with a concurrent
narration or with concurrent on-screen text.
On all three test conditions, the individuals in
the narration group outperformed the other
group.
These results are consistent with the predictions of
the dual-processing hypothesis
14. Having modality-specific mechanisms seems to
help us “stretch” our working memory
capacity (Ormrod, 199).
We have an easier time performing two tasks at
the same time when one task involves auditory
information and the other task is visual in
nature (Ormrod, 199).
In the previous study by Mayer & Moreno (1998), it
was found students had better recall when pictures
& words were presented in separate modalities.
15. Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. The
psychology of learning and motivation, 8, 47-90.
Engle, R.W., Tuholski, S.W., Laughlin, J.E., & Conway, A.R.A. (1999).
Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid
intelligence: a latent variable approach. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 128, 309-331.
Mayer, R.E. & Moreno, R. (1998). A split-attention effect in
multimedia learning: Evidence for dual processing systems in
working memory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 312-320.
Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two:
some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
Ormrod, J.E. (2004). Human Learning. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson.
Editor's Notes
WM aids us in the learning process by providing temp. storage, the ability to manipulate info., and focus attention.
WM is a cognitive function essential to everyday life.One of the most well know theories of WM comes from Baddeley & Hitch’s research in the late 1960s. During this time memory was still regarded as a single unitary system. Baddeley & Hitch (among other researchers) argued otherwise and their dichotomous model of WM is still widely used today. Baddeley defines WM as:
WM has essentially replaced the term STM.Baddeley states it is the reliance on controlled attention that makes the 2 constructs different (empirically & theoretically)
One of the most widely know theories regarding the capacity of WM is George A. Miller’s classic 1956 study, The Magical Number Seven. Most researchers today agree Miller’s theory was overly simplistic. It is difficult to identify the true capacity of WM.We can easily put to test Miller’s theory in a simple free recall test. I will present you with a list of 17 “word concepts”. You will have 30 minutes to memorize these, after which I will ask you to recall as many as you can on the sheet provided. Is everyone ready?
Count up the number you have correct. How many people got between 5-9 words? Did anyone get any more (or less) than that?As you can see the number of correct words recalled varies from person to person. Individuals have different strategies for this type of task and is why Miller’s #7 is said to vary across tasks and individuals.
Before I explain how information is processed in WM, I will explain briefly how new information is acquired into memory. The modal model states that:Information from the environment (sensory input) enters sensory memory where it is held a very short time (a few seconds).If the information is attended to, it moves into WM. In the original modal model this area was labeled STM, but for our sake we will think of it as a WM store. If the incoming information reaches WM it is rehearsed here and will be encoded into LTM, if not the information is lost. WM also uses prior knowledge (hence the two way arrow). Retrieval of info from WM is a process of scanning the contents until the desired information is found. Ex. essay testAs you are answering an essay question you are using your WM. Perhaps you read over your study sheet just prior to the exam. This information will be available to your WM along with the information you’ve learned and stored in LTM.
Baddeley & Hitch’s model describes WM in terms of 3 separate parts: a control center (the CE) with 2 slave or storage systems (the sketchpad & phono. Loop)
This is commonly referred to as maintenance rehearsal (often takes the form of sub vocal speech). If a friend has ever given you a phone number and you didn’t have any way to write it down you are forced to put that number into your working memory. As many of you have probably experienced, it can be quickly lost. Repetition aids in retrieval of the information later when it is needed.
The PFC is where the processes of WM are thought to take place. THE PFC gets information from other parts of the cortex and holds it for immediate use. Because incoming information is varied the CE provides a way for us to switch between information from any of the senses. The basic job of the CE is to sort through previously stored information in LTM and incoming information being processed to come to a decision to the problem at hand.
Now that I have explained how WM functions, we can look at some examples of how WM is crucial in the learning process. WM (especially the CE) is the place where many processes important for learning, thinking, and behavior take place.These are just a few examples of where an individual would use their WM in an academic setting.
There is a lot of research pertaining to WM and the learning process. This research can especially be helpful to teachers who need to be aware of how information is acquired in order to teach that information in the most effective way. In Baddeley’s model modality specific stores are responsible for processing different types of information. If one system becomes overloaded (as in the case of the group with concurrent text) the visuo-spatial sketchpad becomes over worker- and therefore information is not acquired & articulated as effectively.
The author of the book also states that: WM has implications on the learning process. The way in which we process new information relies on our WM and is crucial to our success of the task at hand.