The document discusses prototype-based models in machine learning. It provides an overview of unsupervised learning techniques including vector quantization and self-organizing maps, which group similar data points together to form clusters or reduce dimensions. It also discusses supervised learning methods like learning vector quantization, which learns prototype vectors to classify new examples based on their distances to the prototypes. The document uses examples like clustering iris flower data with a self-organizing map to illustrate prototype-based modeling approaches.
Welcome to the Supervised Machine Learning and Data Sciences.
Algorithms for building models. Support Vector Machines.
Classification algorithm explanation and code in Python ( SVM ) .
The release of TensorFlow 2.0 comes with a significant number of improvements over its 1.x version, all with a focus on ease of usability and a better user experience. We will give an overview of what TensorFlow 2.0 is and discuss how to get started building models from scratch using TensorFlow 2.0’s high-level api, Keras. We will walk through an example step-by-step in Python of how to build an image classifier. We will then showcase how to leverage a transfer learning to make building a model even easier! With transfer learning, we can leverage other pretrained models such as ImageNet to drastically speed up the training time of our model. TensorFlow 2.0 makes this incredibly simple to do.
In this presentation, we approach a two-class classification problem. We try to find a plane that separates the class in the feature space, also called a hyperplane. If we can't find a hyperplane, then we can be creative in two ways: 1) We soften what we mean by separate, and 2) We enrich and enlarge the featured space so that separation is possible.
Support Vector Machine - How Support Vector Machine works | SVM in Machine Le...Simplilearn
This Support Vector Machine (SVM) presentation will help you understand Support Vector Machine algorithm, a supervised machine learning algorithm which can be used for both classification and regression problems. This SVM presentation will help you learn where and when to use SVM algorithm, how does the algorithm work, what are hyperplanes and support vectors in SVM, how distance margin helps in optimizing the hyperplane, kernel functions in SVM for data transformation and advantages of SVM algorithm. At the end, we will also implement Support Vector Machine algorithm in Python to differentiate crocodiles from alligators for a given dataset.
Below topics are explained in this Support Vector Machine presentation:
1. What is Machine Learning?
2. Why support vector machine?
3. What is support vector machine?
4. Understanding support vector machine
5. Advantages of support vector machine
6. Use case in Python
- - - - - - - -
About Simplilearn Machine Learning course:
A form of artificial intelligence, Machine Learning is revolutionizing the world of computing as well as all people’s digital interactions. Machine Learning powers such innovative automated technologies as recommendation engines, facial recognition, fraud protection and even self-driving cars.This Machine Learning course prepares engineers, data scientists and other professionals with knowledge and hands-on skills required for certification and job competency in Machine Learning.
- - - - - - -
Why learn Machine Learning?
Machine Learning is taking over the world- and with that, there is a growing need among companies for professionals to know the ins and outs of Machine Learning
The Machine Learning market size is expected to grow from USD 1.03 Billion in 2016 to USD 8.81 Billion by 2022, at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 44.1% during the forecast period.
- - - - - -
What skills will you learn from this Machine Learning course?
By the end of this Machine Learning course, you will be able to:
1. Master the concepts of supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement learning concepts and modeling.
2. Gain practical mastery over principles, algorithms, and applications of Machine Learning through a hands-on approach which includes working on 28 projects and one capstone project.
3. Acquire thorough knowledge of the mathematical and heuristic aspects of Machine Learning.
4. Understand the concepts and operation of support vector machines, kernel SVM, Naive Bayes, decision tree classifier, random forest classifier, logistic regression, K-nearest neighbors, K-means clustering and more.
5. Be able to model a wide variety of robust Machine Learning algorithms including deep learning, clustering, and recommendation systems
- - - - - - -
Welcome to the Supervised Machine Learning and Data Sciences.
Algorithms for building models. Support Vector Machines.
Classification algorithm explanation and code in Python ( SVM ) .
The release of TensorFlow 2.0 comes with a significant number of improvements over its 1.x version, all with a focus on ease of usability and a better user experience. We will give an overview of what TensorFlow 2.0 is and discuss how to get started building models from scratch using TensorFlow 2.0’s high-level api, Keras. We will walk through an example step-by-step in Python of how to build an image classifier. We will then showcase how to leverage a transfer learning to make building a model even easier! With transfer learning, we can leverage other pretrained models such as ImageNet to drastically speed up the training time of our model. TensorFlow 2.0 makes this incredibly simple to do.
In this presentation, we approach a two-class classification problem. We try to find a plane that separates the class in the feature space, also called a hyperplane. If we can't find a hyperplane, then we can be creative in two ways: 1) We soften what we mean by separate, and 2) We enrich and enlarge the featured space so that separation is possible.
Support Vector Machine - How Support Vector Machine works | SVM in Machine Le...Simplilearn
This Support Vector Machine (SVM) presentation will help you understand Support Vector Machine algorithm, a supervised machine learning algorithm which can be used for both classification and regression problems. This SVM presentation will help you learn where and when to use SVM algorithm, how does the algorithm work, what are hyperplanes and support vectors in SVM, how distance margin helps in optimizing the hyperplane, kernel functions in SVM for data transformation and advantages of SVM algorithm. At the end, we will also implement Support Vector Machine algorithm in Python to differentiate crocodiles from alligators for a given dataset.
Below topics are explained in this Support Vector Machine presentation:
1. What is Machine Learning?
2. Why support vector machine?
3. What is support vector machine?
4. Understanding support vector machine
5. Advantages of support vector machine
6. Use case in Python
- - - - - - - -
About Simplilearn Machine Learning course:
A form of artificial intelligence, Machine Learning is revolutionizing the world of computing as well as all people’s digital interactions. Machine Learning powers such innovative automated technologies as recommendation engines, facial recognition, fraud protection and even self-driving cars.This Machine Learning course prepares engineers, data scientists and other professionals with knowledge and hands-on skills required for certification and job competency in Machine Learning.
- - - - - - -
Why learn Machine Learning?
Machine Learning is taking over the world- and with that, there is a growing need among companies for professionals to know the ins and outs of Machine Learning
The Machine Learning market size is expected to grow from USD 1.03 Billion in 2016 to USD 8.81 Billion by 2022, at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 44.1% during the forecast period.
- - - - - -
What skills will you learn from this Machine Learning course?
By the end of this Machine Learning course, you will be able to:
1. Master the concepts of supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement learning concepts and modeling.
2. Gain practical mastery over principles, algorithms, and applications of Machine Learning through a hands-on approach which includes working on 28 projects and one capstone project.
3. Acquire thorough knowledge of the mathematical and heuristic aspects of Machine Learning.
4. Understand the concepts and operation of support vector machines, kernel SVM, Naive Bayes, decision tree classifier, random forest classifier, logistic regression, K-nearest neighbors, K-means clustering and more.
5. Be able to model a wide variety of robust Machine Learning algorithms including deep learning, clustering, and recommendation systems
- - - - - - -
An introduction to Keras, a high-level neural networks library written in Python. Keras makes deep learning more accessible, is fantastic for rapid protyping, and can run on top of TensorFlow, Theano, or CNTK. These slides focus on examples, starting with logistic regression and building towards a convolutional neural network.
The presentation was given at the Austin Deep Learning meetup: https://www.meetup.com/Austin-Deep-Learning/events/237661902/
You will learn the basic concepts of machine learning classification and will be introduced to some different algorithms that can be used. This is from a very high level and will not be getting into the nitty-gritty details.
Naive Bayes is a kind of classifier which uses the Bayes Theorem. It predicts membership probabilities for each class such as the probability that given record or data point belongs to a particular class.
** Machine Learning Masters Program: https://www.edureka.co/masters-program/machine-learning-engineer-training **
This Edureka Machine Learning PPT on "Complete Machine Learning Course" will provide you with detailed and comprehensive knowledge of Machine Learning. It will provide you with the in-depth knowledge of the different types of Machine Learning with the different algorithms that lie under each category with a demo for each algorithm and the approach one should take to solve these problems. This PPT will be covering the following topics:
What is Data Science?
Data Science Peripherals
What is Machine learning?
Features of Machine Learning
How it works?
Applications of Machine Learning
Market Trend of Machine Learning
Machine Learning Life Cycle
Important Python Libraries
Types of Machine Learning
Supervised Learning
Unsupervised Learning
Reinforcement Learning
Detailed Supervised Learning
Supervised Learning Algorithms
Linear Regression
Use Case(with Demo)
Model Fitting
Need for Logistic Regression
What is Logistic Regression?
What is Decision Tree?
What is Random Forest?
What is Naïve Bayes?
Detailed Unsupervised Learning
What is Clustering?
Types of Clustering
Market Basket Analysis
Association Rule Mining
Example
Apriori Algorithm
Detailed Reinforcement Learning
Reward Maximization
The Epsilon Greedy Algorithm
Markov Decision Process
Q-Learning
Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/edureka_learning/
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Twitter: https://twitter.com/edurekain
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/edureka
MIT Deep Learning Basics: Introduction and Overview by Lex FridmanPeerasak C.
MIT Deep Learning Basics: Introduction and Overview by Lex Fridman
Watch video: https://youtu.be/O5xeyoRL95U
An introductory lecture for MIT course 6.S094 on the basics of deep learning including a few key ideas, subfields, and the big picture of why neural networks have inspired and energized an entire new generation of researchers. For more lecture videos on deep learning, reinforcement learning (RL), artificial intelligence (AI & AGI), and podcast conversations, visit our website or follow TensorFlow code tutorials on our GitHub repo.
INFO:
Website: https://deeplearning.mit.edu
CONNECT:
- If you enjoyed this video, please subscribe to this channel.
- Twitter: https://twitter.com/lexfridman
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Tutorial at the Winter School on Machine Learning, Gran Canaria, January 2020 (ppsx format, 52 slides)
Michael Biehl, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
An introduction to Keras, a high-level neural networks library written in Python. Keras makes deep learning more accessible, is fantastic for rapid protyping, and can run on top of TensorFlow, Theano, or CNTK. These slides focus on examples, starting with logistic regression and building towards a convolutional neural network.
The presentation was given at the Austin Deep Learning meetup: https://www.meetup.com/Austin-Deep-Learning/events/237661902/
You will learn the basic concepts of machine learning classification and will be introduced to some different algorithms that can be used. This is from a very high level and will not be getting into the nitty-gritty details.
Naive Bayes is a kind of classifier which uses the Bayes Theorem. It predicts membership probabilities for each class such as the probability that given record or data point belongs to a particular class.
** Machine Learning Masters Program: https://www.edureka.co/masters-program/machine-learning-engineer-training **
This Edureka Machine Learning PPT on "Complete Machine Learning Course" will provide you with detailed and comprehensive knowledge of Machine Learning. It will provide you with the in-depth knowledge of the different types of Machine Learning with the different algorithms that lie under each category with a demo for each algorithm and the approach one should take to solve these problems. This PPT will be covering the following topics:
What is Data Science?
Data Science Peripherals
What is Machine learning?
Features of Machine Learning
How it works?
Applications of Machine Learning
Market Trend of Machine Learning
Machine Learning Life Cycle
Important Python Libraries
Types of Machine Learning
Supervised Learning
Unsupervised Learning
Reinforcement Learning
Detailed Supervised Learning
Supervised Learning Algorithms
Linear Regression
Use Case(with Demo)
Model Fitting
Need for Logistic Regression
What is Logistic Regression?
What is Decision Tree?
What is Random Forest?
What is Naïve Bayes?
Detailed Unsupervised Learning
What is Clustering?
Types of Clustering
Market Basket Analysis
Association Rule Mining
Example
Apriori Algorithm
Detailed Reinforcement Learning
Reward Maximization
The Epsilon Greedy Algorithm
Markov Decision Process
Q-Learning
Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/edureka_learning/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/edurekaIN/
Twitter: https://twitter.com/edurekain
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/edureka
MIT Deep Learning Basics: Introduction and Overview by Lex FridmanPeerasak C.
MIT Deep Learning Basics: Introduction and Overview by Lex Fridman
Watch video: https://youtu.be/O5xeyoRL95U
An introductory lecture for MIT course 6.S094 on the basics of deep learning including a few key ideas, subfields, and the big picture of why neural networks have inspired and energized an entire new generation of researchers. For more lecture videos on deep learning, reinforcement learning (RL), artificial intelligence (AI & AGI), and podcast conversations, visit our website or follow TensorFlow code tutorials on our GitHub repo.
INFO:
Website: https://deeplearning.mit.edu
CONNECT:
- If you enjoyed this video, please subscribe to this channel.
- Twitter: https://twitter.com/lexfridman
- LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/lexfridman
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Tutorial at the Winter School on Machine Learning, Gran Canaria, January 2020 (ppsx format, 52 slides)
Michael Biehl, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Introduction to machine learning terminology.
Applications within High Energy Physics and outside HEP.
* Basic problems: classification and regression.
* Nearest neighbours approach and spacial indices
* Overfitting (intro)
* Curse of dimensionality
* ROC curve, ROC AUC
* Bayes optimal classifier
* Density estimation: KDE and histograms
* Parametric density estimation
* Mixtures for density estimation and EM algorithm
* Generative approach vs discriminative approach
* Linear decision rule, intro to logistic regression
* Linear regression
k-Means is a rather simple but well known algorithms for grouping objects, clustering. Again all objects need to be represented as a set of numerical features. In addition the user has to specify the number of groups (referred to as k) he wishes to identify. Each object can be thought of as being represented by some feature vector in an n dimensional space, n being the number of all features used to describe the objects to cluster. The algorithm then randomly chooses k points in that vector space, these point serve as the initial centers of the clusters. Afterwards all objects are each assigned to center they are closest to. Usually the distance measure is chosen by the user and determined by the learning task. After that, for each cluster a new center is computed by averaging the feature vectors of all objects assigned to it. The process of assigning objects and recomputing centers is repeated until the process converges. The algorithm can be proven to converge after a finite number of iterations. Several tweaks concerning distance measure, initial center choice and computation of new average centers have been explored, as well as the estimation of the number of clusters k. Yet the main principle always remains the same. In this project we will discuss about K-means clustering algorithm, implementation and its application to the problem of unsupervised learning
Invited lecture on Machine Learning in Medicine at the joint "Integrated Omics" course of Hanze University and University Hospital UMCG, Groningen, The Netherlands
Interpretable machine learning in endocrinology, M. Biehl, APPIS 2024University of Groningen
An introduction to interpretable machine learning in endocrinology.
In particular, the application of Generalized Matrix Relevance LVQ to the classification of andrenocortical tumors and the differential diagnosis of primary aldosteronism is given.
A tutorial given at the AMALEA workshop 2022:
Unsupervised and supervised prototype-based learning is illustrated in terms of bio-medical applications.
A tutorial given at the AMALEA workshop 2022.
This talk presents the statistical physics based theory of machine learning in terms of simple example systems. As a recent application, the occurrence of phase transitions in layered networks is discussed.
The statistical physics of learning revisted: Phase transitions in layered ne...University of Groningen
"The statistical physics of learning revisted: Phase transitions in layered neural networks"
Physics Colloquium at the University of Leipzig/Germany, June 29, 2021
24 slides, ca 45 minutes
Short presentation (15 minutes) focussing on the application of unsupervised and supervised machine learning in the paper "Tissue- and development-stage specific mRNA and heterogeneous CNV signatures of human ribosomal proteins in normal and cancer samples
Talk presented at WSOM 2016 in Houston/Texas.
Machine learning based classification of FDG-PET scan data for the diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders
June 2017: Biomedical applications of prototype-based classifiers and relevan...University of Groningen
A presentation of several biomedical applications of prototype-based machine learning and relevance learning. Invited talk at the AlCoB conference 2017 in Aveiro/Portugal.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
1. Michael Biehl
Johann Bernoulli Institute for
Mathematics and Computer Science
University of Groningen
www.cs.rug.nl/biehl
Prototype-based models
in machine learning
3. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 3
overview
1. Introduction / Motivation
prototypes, exemplars
neural activation / learning
3. Supervised Learning
Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ)
Adaptive distances and Relevance Learning
(Examples: three bio-medical applications)
2. Unsupervised Learning
Vector Quantization (VQ)
Competitive Learning in VQ and Neural Gas
Kohonen’s Self-Organizing Map (SOM)
4. Summary
4. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 4
1. Introduction
prototypes, exemplars:
representation of information in terms of
typical representatives (e.g. of a class of objects),
much debated concept in cognitive psychology
neural activation / learning:
external stimulus to a network of neurons
response acc. to weights (expected inputs)
best matching unit (and neighbors)
learning -> even stronger response to the same stimulus in future
weights represent different expected stimuli (prototypes)
5. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 5
even independent from the above:
attractive framework for machine learning based data analysis
- trained system is parameterized in the feature space (data)
- facilitates discussions with domain experts
- transparent (white box) and provides insights into the
applied criteria (classification, regression, clustering etc.)
- easy to implement, efficient computation
- versatile, successfully applied in many different application areas
6. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 6
2. Unsupervised Learning
Some potential aims:
dimension reduction:
- compression
- visualization for human insight
- principal {independent} component analysis
exploration / structure detection:
- clustering
- similarities / dissimilarities
- source identification
- density estimation
- neighborhood relation, topology
pre-processing for further analysis
- supvervised learning, e.g.
classification, regression, prediction
7. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017
based on dis-similarity/distance measure
assignment to prototypes:
given vector xμ , determine winner
→ assign xμ to prototype w*
one popular example: (squared) Euclidean distance
Vector Quantization (VQ)
VQ system: set of prototypes
data: set of feature vectors
Vector Quantization: identify (few) typical representatives of data
which capture essential features
8. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 8
random sequential (repeated) presentation of data
… the winner takes it all:
initially: randomized wk, e.g. in randomly selected data points
competitive learning
η (<1): learning rate, step size of update
comparison:
K-means: updates all prototypes, considers all data at a time,
EM for Gaussian mixtures in the limit of zero width
competitive VQ: updates only the winner, random sequ. presentation
of single examples (stochastic gradient descent)
9. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 9
quantization error
here:
Euclidean distance
competitive VQ (and K-means) aim at optimizing a cost function:
- assign each data to closest prototype
- measure the corresponding (squared) distance
quantization error (sum over all data points)
measures the quality of the representation
defines a (one) criterion to evaluate / compare
the quality of different prototype configurations
1 for x 0
Θ =
0 else
x
10. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 10
VQ and clustering
ideal clustering
scenario:
well-separate,
spherical clusters
in general:
representation
of observations
in feature space
sensitive to
cluster shape,
coordinate
transformations
(even linear)
small clusters
irrelevant with
respect to quan-
tization error
Remark 1: VQ ≠ clustering
minimal quantization error:
11. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 11
VQ and clustering
Remark 2: clustering is an ill-defined problem
“obviously three clusters” “well, maybe only two?”
our criterion: lower HVQ higher HVQ
→ “ better clustering ” ???
12. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 12
→ “ the best clustering ” ?
HVQ = 0
K=1
the simplest clustering …
HVQ (and similar criteria) allow only to compare VQ with the same K !
K=60
more general: heuristic compromise between “error” and “simplicity”
VQ and clustering
13. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 13
data
initial
prototypes
practical issues of VQ training:
solution: rank-based updates (winner, second, third,… )
dead
units
training
more general: local minima of the quantization error,
initialization-dependent outcome of training
competitive learning
14. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017
Neural Gas (NG)
introduce rank-based neighborhood cooperativeness:
upon presentation of xμ :
• determine the rank of the prototypes
• update all prototypes:
with neighborhood function
and rank-based range λ
• potential annealing of λ from large to smaller values
[Martinetz, Berkovich, Schulten, IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. 1993]
many prototypes (gas) to represent the density of observed data
15. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017
Self-Organizing Map
T. Kohonen. Self-Organizing Maps. Springer (2nd edition 1997)
neighborhood cooperativeness on a predefined low-dim. lattice
lattice A of neurons
i.e. prototypes
- update winner and neighborhood:
where
range ρ w.r.t. distances in lattice A
upon presentation of xμ :
- determine the winner (best matching unit)
at position s in the lattice
17. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 17
Self-Organizing Map
illustration: Iris flower data set [Fisher, 1936]:
4 num. features representing Iris flowers from 3 different species
SOM (4x6 prototypes in a 2-dim. grid)
training on 150 samples (without class label information)
component planes: 4 arrays representing the prototype values
18. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 18
U-Matrix: elements
Ur = average distance
d(wr,ws) from n.n. sites
reflects cluster structure
larger U at cluster borders
post labelling: assign
prototype to the majority
class of data it wins
Versicolor
Setosa
Virginica
(undefined)
here: Setosa well separated
from Virginica/Versicolor
Self-Organizing Map
19. Brain Inspired Computing - BrainComp, Cetraro, June 2017 19
Remarks:
- presentation of approaches not in historical order
- many extensions of the basic concept, e.g.
Generative Topographic Map (GTM), probabilistic
formulation of the mapping to low-dim. lattice
[Bishop, Svensen, Williams, 1998]
SOM and NG for specific types of data
- time series
- “non-vectorial” relational data
- graphs and trees
Vector Quantization
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3. Supervised Learning
Potential aims:
- classification:
assign observations (data) to categories or classes
as inferred from labeled training data
- regression:
assign a continuous target value to an observation
dto.
- prediction:
predict the evolution of a time series (sequence)
inferred from observations of the history
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distance based classification
assignment of data (objects, observations,...)
to one or several classes (crisp/soft) (categories, labels)
based on comparison with reference data (samples, prototypes)
in terms of a distance measure (dis-similarity, metric)
representation of data (a key step!)
- collection of qualitative/quantitative descriptors
- vectors of numerical features
- sequences, graphs, functional data
- relational data, e.g. in terms of pairwise (dis-) similarities
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K-NN classifier
a simple distance-based classifier
- store a set of labeled examples
- classify a query according to the
label of the Nearest Neighbor
(or the majority of K NN)
- local decision boundary acc.
to (e.g.) Euclidean distances
?
- piece-wise linear class borders
parameterized by all examples
feature space
+ conceptually simple, no training required, one parameter (K)
- expensive storage and computation, sensitivity to “outliers”
can result in overly complex decision boundaries
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prototype based classification
a prototype based classifier [Kohonen 1990, 1997]
- represent the data by one or
several prototypes per class
- classify a query according to the
label of the nearest prototype
(or alternative schemes)
- local decision boundaries according
to (e.g.) Euclidean distances
- piece-wise linear class borders
parameterized by prototypes
feature space
?
+ less sensitive to outliers, lower storage needs, little computational
effort in the working phase
- training phase required in order to place prototypes,
model selection problem: number of prototypes per class, etc.
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set of prototypes
carrying class-labels
based on dissimilarity/distance measure
nearest prototype classifier (NPC):
given - determine the winner
- assign x to the class
most prominent example: (squared) Euclidean distance
Nearest Prototype Classifier
reasonable requirements:
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∙ identification of prototype vectors from labeled example data
∙ distance based classification (e.g. Euclidean)
Learning Vector Quantization
N-dimensional data, feature vectors
• initialize prototype vectors
for different classes
heuristic scheme: LVQ1 [Kohonen, 1990, 1997]
• identify the winner
(closest prototype)
• present a single example
• move the winner
- closer towards the data (same class)
- away from the data (different class)
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∙ identification of prototype vectors from labeled example data
∙ distance based classification (e.g. Euclidean)
Learning Vector Quantization
N-dimensional data, feature vectors
∙ tesselation of feature space
[piece-wise linear]
∙ distance-based classification
[here: Euclidean distances]
∙ generalization ability
correct classification of new data
∙ aim: discrimination of classes
( ≠ vector quantization
or density estimation )
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sequential presentation of labelled examples
… the winner takes it all:
learning rate
many heuristic variants/modifications: [Kohonen, 1990,1997]
- learning rate schedules ηw (t)
- update more than one prototype per step
iterative training procedure:
randomized initial , e.g. close to the class-conditional means
LVQ1
LVQ1 update step:
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LVQ1 update step:
LVQ1-like update for
generalized distance:
requirement:
update decreases (increases) distance if classes coincide (are different)
LVQ1
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Generalized LVQ
one example of cost function based training: GLVQ [Sato & Yamada, 1995]
sigmoidal (linear for small arguments), e.g.
E approximates number of misclassifications
linear
E favors large margin separation of classes, e.g.
two winning prototypes:
minimize
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GLVQ
training = optimization with respect to prototype position,
e.g. single example presentation, stochastic sequence of examples,
update of two prototypes per step
based on non-negative, differentiable distance
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GLVQ
training = optimization with respect to prototype position,
e.g. single example presentation, stochastic sequence of examples,
update of two prototypes per step
based on non-negative, differentiable distance
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GLVQ
training = optimization with respect to prototype position,
e.g. single example presentation, stochastic sequence of examples,
update of two prototypes per step
based on Euclidean distance
moves prototypes towards / away from
sample with prefactors
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+ frequently applied in a
variety of practical problems
+ intuitive interpretation
prototypes defined in feature space
+ natural for multi-class problems
- often based on purely heuristic arguments … or …
cost functions with unclear relation to classification error
Important issue: which is the ‘right’ distance measure ?
prototype/distance based classifiers
- model/parameter selection (# of prototypes, learning rate, …)
features may
- scale differently
- be of completely different nature
- be highly correlated / dependent
…
simple Euclidean distance ?
+ flexible, easy to implement
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distance measures
fixed distance measures:
- select distance measures according to prior knowledge
- data driven choice in a preprocessing step
- determine prototypes for a given distance
- compare performance of various measures
example: divergence based LVQ
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Relevance Matrix LVQ
generalized quadratic distance in LVQ:
variants:
one global, several local, class-wise relevance matrices
→ piecewise quadratic decision boundaries
rectangular discriminative low-dim. representation
e.g. for visualization [Bunte et al., 2012]
possible constraints: rank-control, sparsity, …
normalization:
diagonal matrices: single feature weights [Bojer et al., 2001]
[Hammer et al., 2002]
[Schneider et al., 2009]
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Generalized Relevance Matrix LVQ
Generalized Matrix-LVQ
(GMLVQ)
gradients of cost function:
optimization of prototypes and distance measure
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heuristic interpretation
summarizes
- the contribution of the original dimension
- the relevance of original features for the classification
interpretation assumes implicitly:
features have equal order of magnitude
e.g. after z-score-transformation →
(averages over data set)
standard Euclidean distance for
linearly transformed features
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Iris flower data revisited (supervised analysis by GMLVQ)
GMLVQ
prototypes
relevance
matrix
Relevance Matrix LVQ
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empirical observation / theory:
relevance matrix becomes
singular, dominated by
very few eigenvectors
prevents over-fitting in
high-dim. feature spaces
facilitates discriminative
visualization of datasets
confirms: Setosa well-separated
from Virginica / Versicolor
Relevance Matrix LVQ
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projection on first eigenvector
projectiononsecondeigenvector a multi-class example
classification of coffee samples
based on hyperspectral data
(256-dim. feature vectors)
[U. Seiffert et al., IFF Magdeburg]
prototypes
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Relevance Matrix LVQ
optimization of
prototype positions
distance measure(s)
in one training process
(≠ pre-processing)
motivation:
improved performance
- weighting of features and pairs of features
simplified classification schemes
- elimination of non-informative, noisy features
- discriminative low-dimensional representation
insight into the data / classification problem
- identification of most discriminative features
- intrinsic low-dim. representation, visualization
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related schemes
Relevance LVQ variants
local, rectangular, structured, restricted... relevance matrices
for visualization, functional data, texture recognition, etc.
relevance learning in Robust Soft LVQ, Supervised NG, etc.
combination of distances for mixed data ...
Relevance Learning related schemes in supervised learning ...
RBF Networks [Backhaus et al., 2012]
Neighborhood Component Analysis [Goldberger et al., 2005]
Large Margin Nearest Neighbor [Weinberger et al., 2006, 2010]
and many more!
Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)
one prototype per class + global matrix,
different objective function!
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http://matlabserver.cs.rug.nl/gmlvqweb/web/
Matlab code:
Relevance and Matrix adaptation in Learning Vector
Quantization (GRLVQ, GMLVQ and LiRaM LVQ):
http://www.cs.rug.nl/~biehl/
links
Pre- and re-prints etc.:
A no-nonsense beginners’ tool for GMLVQ:
http://www.cs.rug.nl/~biehl/gmlvq
(see also: Tutorial, Thursday 9:30)