Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
levels of protein structure , Domains ,motifs & Folds in protein structureAaqib Naseer
Protein structure is hierarchical, with four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structures include alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonding between amino acids in the sequence. Tertiary structure involves folding of the entire chain into a compact 3D structure. Quaternary structure involves the assembly of protein subunits. Other structural features include domains, which are independently folded and functional regions, motifs like loops and barrels formed by secondary structure elements, and folds defined by the arrangement of alpha helices and beta sheets. Understanding protein structure is important for studying protein function and for developing drugs.
Porphyrins are cyclic tetrapyrroles that are important in producing heme in animals and chlorophyll in plants. They contain four pyrrole rings linked by methylene bridges that fluoresce red when exposed to light. The main types that have clinical significance are uroporphyrin, coproporphyrin, and protoporphyrin, which differ in their side chain substituents. Heme synthesis occurs mostly in the liver and bone marrow and involves multiple steps in the mitochondria and cytoplasm, and is regulated by a negative feedback loop involving free intracellular heme. Porphyrins play important roles in oxygen transport and activation in hemoproteins.
1. Nucleic acids consist of nitrogen bases, pentose sugars, and phosphates. The pentose sugar is D-ribose in RNA and 2-deoxy D-ribose in DNA.
2. Purine nucleotides are synthesized through a de novo pathway where inosine monophosphate (IMP) is synthesized from basic building blocks like aspartate, glycine, and glutamine and later converted to AMP and GMP.
3. Pyrimidine nucleotides are synthesized by first forming orotidine monophosphate from aspartate, carbamoyl phosphate, and glutamine, which is then converted to UMP and other pyrimidine nucleotides.
The document discusses fatty acid synthesis. It begins by describing fatty acids and their roles in the body. It then covers the three main ways fatty acids are produced: diet, adipolysis, and de novo synthesis. The process of de novo synthesis occurs primarily in the liver, adipose tissue, and lactating mammary glands. It involves acetyl-CoA being carboxylated to malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Fatty acid synthase then catalyzes the repeating cycles of condensation, reduction, dehydration, and reduction to elongate the fatty acid chain until a 16-carbon palmitate is produced. NADPH provides reducing equivalents for the reactions.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Proteins fold into their functional three-dimensional shapes due to interactions between the amino acid side chains. The primary structure of a protein is its amino acid sequence, while secondary structures like alpha helices and beta sheets form due to hydrogen bonds within the peptide backbone. Tertiary structure is determined by non-covalent interactions between the side chains that stabilize the overall three-dimensional structure of the protein. Quaternary structure refers to the interaction between multiple polypeptide subunits in a single protein.
Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
levels of protein structure , Domains ,motifs & Folds in protein structureAaqib Naseer
Protein structure is hierarchical, with four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structures include alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonding between amino acids in the sequence. Tertiary structure involves folding of the entire chain into a compact 3D structure. Quaternary structure involves the assembly of protein subunits. Other structural features include domains, which are independently folded and functional regions, motifs like loops and barrels formed by secondary structure elements, and folds defined by the arrangement of alpha helices and beta sheets. Understanding protein structure is important for studying protein function and for developing drugs.
Porphyrins are cyclic tetrapyrroles that are important in producing heme in animals and chlorophyll in plants. They contain four pyrrole rings linked by methylene bridges that fluoresce red when exposed to light. The main types that have clinical significance are uroporphyrin, coproporphyrin, and protoporphyrin, which differ in their side chain substituents. Heme synthesis occurs mostly in the liver and bone marrow and involves multiple steps in the mitochondria and cytoplasm, and is regulated by a negative feedback loop involving free intracellular heme. Porphyrins play important roles in oxygen transport and activation in hemoproteins.
1. Nucleic acids consist of nitrogen bases, pentose sugars, and phosphates. The pentose sugar is D-ribose in RNA and 2-deoxy D-ribose in DNA.
2. Purine nucleotides are synthesized through a de novo pathway where inosine monophosphate (IMP) is synthesized from basic building blocks like aspartate, glycine, and glutamine and later converted to AMP and GMP.
3. Pyrimidine nucleotides are synthesized by first forming orotidine monophosphate from aspartate, carbamoyl phosphate, and glutamine, which is then converted to UMP and other pyrimidine nucleotides.
The document discusses fatty acid synthesis. It begins by describing fatty acids and their roles in the body. It then covers the three main ways fatty acids are produced: diet, adipolysis, and de novo synthesis. The process of de novo synthesis occurs primarily in the liver, adipose tissue, and lactating mammary glands. It involves acetyl-CoA being carboxylated to malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Fatty acid synthase then catalyzes the repeating cycles of condensation, reduction, dehydration, and reduction to elongate the fatty acid chain until a 16-carbon palmitate is produced. NADPH provides reducing equivalents for the reactions.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Proteins fold into their functional three-dimensional shapes due to interactions between the amino acid side chains. The primary structure of a protein is its amino acid sequence, while secondary structures like alpha helices and beta sheets form due to hydrogen bonds within the peptide backbone. Tertiary structure is determined by non-covalent interactions between the side chains that stabilize the overall three-dimensional structure of the protein. Quaternary structure refers to the interaction between multiple polypeptide subunits in a single protein.
This document provides information about translation, the process by which the nucleotide sequence of mRNA is converted into the amino acid sequence of a protein. It describes the key components and steps of translation, including the roles of the ribosome, tRNA, mRNA, and various initiation, elongation and termination factors. Translation is universal but can vary slightly between cytoplasmic and mitochondrial genetic codes. The document also discusses regulation of translation and clinical implications.
Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are essential biological molecules found in the nuclei of living cells. DNA controls cellular functions and heredity by carrying the genetic instructions in its double-stranded structure. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and organic bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine) that bond together in a double helix with base pairing between adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine. RNA also carries out important cellular functions and exists in different types including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
This document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) and its components. It notes that the ETC is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and utilizes electrons derived from nutrients to generate ATP through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. It describes the five complexes of the ETC (Complexes I-IV which transport electrons and Complex V which synthesizes ATP) as well as the mobile carriers involved in electron transport, including NADH, Coenzyme Q, cytochrome c, and oxygen. The ETC functions to transfer electrons from substrates to oxygen and harness the energy to produce ATP, making mitochondria the powerhouse of the cell.
Secondary Structure Of Protein (Repeating structure of protein)Amrutha Hari
This document discusses the structure of proteins at various levels. It describes the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The secondary structures discussed in detail include the alpha helix, beta pleated sheet, random coil, collagen helix, and beta turn. The alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between amino acids. The collagen helix structure provides strength and is the main component of connective tissues. Genetic disorders like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and osteogenesis imperfecta result from defects in collagen structures. Ramachandran plots are used to visualize allowed backbone dihedral angles in protein structures.
Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are long polymers made up of nucleotides containing a nitrogen base, pentose sugar, and phosphate. DNA exists as a double helix with base pairing between strands. RNA can form complex secondary structures and is involved in protein synthesis.
This document summarizes the biosynthesis of various amino acids from different metabolic precursors. It discusses 6 main families of amino acid biosynthesis defined by their precursor: (1) α-ketoglutarate family including glutamate, glutamine, proline, and arginine; (2) 3-phosphoglycerate family including serine, glycine, and cysteine; (3) oxaloacetate family including aspartate, asparagine, methionine, threonine, and lysine; (4) pyruvate family including alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine; (5) phosphoenolpyruvate and erythrose 4-phosphate
Chromosomes are organized structures that package DNA and proteins in eukaryotic cells. Bacterial genetic material is concentrated in the nucleoid as a single circular DNA chromosome. Eukaryotic cells contain linear chromosomes housed within the nucleus. Chromosomes are made up of DNA, histone proteins, and non-histone proteins. They contain genes and regulatory elements and vary in structure between species.
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
The document discusses protein folding, which is the process by which proteins achieve their functional three-dimensional structure from their linear amino acid sequence. It describes the different levels of protein structure, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. The folding process depends on factors like temperature, pH, and molecular chaperones, which assist in protein folding. Proper folding is required for proteins to carry out their functions in the cell.
This document discusses nucleotides, their synthesis and degradation. It covers the following key points:
1. Nucleotides are composed of a nucleoside (a nitrogenous base linked to a 5-carbon sugar) bound to one or more phosphate groups. They are the monomers that make up nucleic acids like RNA and DNA.
2. Purine nucleotides are synthesized de novo through a complex 10 step pathway beginning with phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) and ending with inosine monophosphate (IMP). Pyrimidine nucleotides can also be synthesized from PRPP.
3. Nucleotides can be broken down through both intracellular catabolism pathways that generate purine
RNA splicing, in molecular biology, is a form of RNA processing in which a newly made precursor messenger RNA transcript is transformed into a mature messenger RNA. During splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together.
RNA splicing is a process where introns are removed from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and exons are joined together to produce mature mRNA. It occurs in the nucleus and is essential for eukaryotes to produce proteins. The spliceosome, a large complex of RNA and proteins, facilitates two transesterification reactions that remove introns and ligate exons. RNA splicing generates protein diversity through alternative splicing and is important for cellular functions and disease processes.
This document discusses various mechanisms of enzyme regulation, including regulation of enzyme quantity through gene expression and regulation of enzyme activity. Enzyme activity can be regulated rapidly through allosteric regulation, covalent modification, association/dissociation, or proteolytic cleavage of proenzymes. Specific examples discussed include allosteric regulation of phosphofructokinase and regulation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase by association/dissociation. Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation is highlighted as a common covalent modification that can regulate enzyme activity.
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies the DNA code in the nucleus and transports it to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. There are three main types of RNA involved: mRNA carries the DNA code to ribosomes, ribosomal RNA is part of the ribosome and helps decode mRNA, and transfer RNA carries amino acids to the ribosome where they are joined according to the mRNA code to form proteins. Protein synthesis involves two main steps - transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of the mRNA code into a protein chain by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Fungal fatty acid synthase (FAS) has a barrel shape with a central wheel that divides it into two reaction chambers. Catalytic domains are distributed across two polypeptide chains, with the alpha chain forming the central wheel and beta chains forming the arms. In comparison, mammalian FAS is a single chain that integrates all catalytic steps. While fungal and mammalian FAS differ in structure, both animals and fungi possess Type I FAS where all steps of fatty acid synthesis are contained within a multi-enzyme complex.
The document discusses the nucleosome model of chromosome structure. It describes how DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which are the basic units of chromatin. Specifically:
- Nucleosomes consist of 146-166 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of core histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.
- Linker histone H1 binds to the DNA as it enters and exits each nucleosome, forming a structure known as a chromatosome.
- Adjacent nucleosomes are joined by 10-80 base pairs of linker DNA. The histone proteins and DNA interact via ionic bonds between negatively charged DNA and positively charged residues on
DNA replication involves the synthesis of new DNA strands through a semi-conservative process whereby each new molecule contains one old strand and one new strand synthesized using the old strand as a template. Key enzymes involved include helicase, which unwinds the DNA double helix, primase, which initiates DNA synthesis, and DNA polymerase, which catalyzes phosphodiester bond formation to elongate the new strands. Fidelity is maintained through proofreading mechanisms that remove incorrectly incorporated nucleotides and DNA repair pathways that correct errors made during replication.
This document provides information about translation, the process by which the nucleotide sequence of mRNA is converted into the amino acid sequence of a protein. It describes the key components and steps of translation, including the roles of the ribosome, tRNA, mRNA, and various initiation, elongation and termination factors. Translation is universal but can vary slightly between cytoplasmic and mitochondrial genetic codes. The document also discusses regulation of translation and clinical implications.
Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are essential biological molecules found in the nuclei of living cells. DNA controls cellular functions and heredity by carrying the genetic instructions in its double-stranded structure. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and organic bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine) that bond together in a double helix with base pairing between adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine. RNA also carries out important cellular functions and exists in different types including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
This document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) and its components. It notes that the ETC is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and utilizes electrons derived from nutrients to generate ATP through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. It describes the five complexes of the ETC (Complexes I-IV which transport electrons and Complex V which synthesizes ATP) as well as the mobile carriers involved in electron transport, including NADH, Coenzyme Q, cytochrome c, and oxygen. The ETC functions to transfer electrons from substrates to oxygen and harness the energy to produce ATP, making mitochondria the powerhouse of the cell.
Secondary Structure Of Protein (Repeating structure of protein)Amrutha Hari
This document discusses the structure of proteins at various levels. It describes the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The secondary structures discussed in detail include the alpha helix, beta pleated sheet, random coil, collagen helix, and beta turn. The alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between amino acids. The collagen helix structure provides strength and is the main component of connective tissues. Genetic disorders like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and osteogenesis imperfecta result from defects in collagen structures. Ramachandran plots are used to visualize allowed backbone dihedral angles in protein structures.
Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are long polymers made up of nucleotides containing a nitrogen base, pentose sugar, and phosphate. DNA exists as a double helix with base pairing between strands. RNA can form complex secondary structures and is involved in protein synthesis.
This document summarizes the biosynthesis of various amino acids from different metabolic precursors. It discusses 6 main families of amino acid biosynthesis defined by their precursor: (1) α-ketoglutarate family including glutamate, glutamine, proline, and arginine; (2) 3-phosphoglycerate family including serine, glycine, and cysteine; (3) oxaloacetate family including aspartate, asparagine, methionine, threonine, and lysine; (4) pyruvate family including alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine; (5) phosphoenolpyruvate and erythrose 4-phosphate
Chromosomes are organized structures that package DNA and proteins in eukaryotic cells. Bacterial genetic material is concentrated in the nucleoid as a single circular DNA chromosome. Eukaryotic cells contain linear chromosomes housed within the nucleus. Chromosomes are made up of DNA, histone proteins, and non-histone proteins. They contain genes and regulatory elements and vary in structure between species.
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
The document discusses protein folding, which is the process by which proteins achieve their functional three-dimensional structure from their linear amino acid sequence. It describes the different levels of protein structure, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. The folding process depends on factors like temperature, pH, and molecular chaperones, which assist in protein folding. Proper folding is required for proteins to carry out their functions in the cell.
This document discusses nucleotides, their synthesis and degradation. It covers the following key points:
1. Nucleotides are composed of a nucleoside (a nitrogenous base linked to a 5-carbon sugar) bound to one or more phosphate groups. They are the monomers that make up nucleic acids like RNA and DNA.
2. Purine nucleotides are synthesized de novo through a complex 10 step pathway beginning with phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) and ending with inosine monophosphate (IMP). Pyrimidine nucleotides can also be synthesized from PRPP.
3. Nucleotides can be broken down through both intracellular catabolism pathways that generate purine
RNA splicing, in molecular biology, is a form of RNA processing in which a newly made precursor messenger RNA transcript is transformed into a mature messenger RNA. During splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together.
RNA splicing is a process where introns are removed from precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and exons are joined together to produce mature mRNA. It occurs in the nucleus and is essential for eukaryotes to produce proteins. The spliceosome, a large complex of RNA and proteins, facilitates two transesterification reactions that remove introns and ligate exons. RNA splicing generates protein diversity through alternative splicing and is important for cellular functions and disease processes.
This document discusses various mechanisms of enzyme regulation, including regulation of enzyme quantity through gene expression and regulation of enzyme activity. Enzyme activity can be regulated rapidly through allosteric regulation, covalent modification, association/dissociation, or proteolytic cleavage of proenzymes. Specific examples discussed include allosteric regulation of phosphofructokinase and regulation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase by association/dissociation. Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation is highlighted as a common covalent modification that can regulate enzyme activity.
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies the DNA code in the nucleus and transports it to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. There are three main types of RNA involved: mRNA carries the DNA code to ribosomes, ribosomal RNA is part of the ribosome and helps decode mRNA, and transfer RNA carries amino acids to the ribosome where they are joined according to the mRNA code to form proteins. Protein synthesis involves two main steps - transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of the mRNA code into a protein chain by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Fungal fatty acid synthase (FAS) has a barrel shape with a central wheel that divides it into two reaction chambers. Catalytic domains are distributed across two polypeptide chains, with the alpha chain forming the central wheel and beta chains forming the arms. In comparison, mammalian FAS is a single chain that integrates all catalytic steps. While fungal and mammalian FAS differ in structure, both animals and fungi possess Type I FAS where all steps of fatty acid synthesis are contained within a multi-enzyme complex.
The document discusses the nucleosome model of chromosome structure. It describes how DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which are the basic units of chromatin. Specifically:
- Nucleosomes consist of 146-166 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of core histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.
- Linker histone H1 binds to the DNA as it enters and exits each nucleosome, forming a structure known as a chromatosome.
- Adjacent nucleosomes are joined by 10-80 base pairs of linker DNA. The histone proteins and DNA interact via ionic bonds between negatively charged DNA and positively charged residues on
DNA replication involves the synthesis of new DNA strands through a semi-conservative process whereby each new molecule contains one old strand and one new strand synthesized using the old strand as a template. Key enzymes involved include helicase, which unwinds the DNA double helix, primase, which initiates DNA synthesis, and DNA polymerase, which catalyzes phosphodiester bond formation to elongate the new strands. Fidelity is maintained through proofreading mechanisms that remove incorrectly incorporated nucleotides and DNA repair pathways that correct errors made during replication.
Translation of mRNA into protein occurs through three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, the ribosome assembles on the mRNA with the help of initiation factors. In elongation, tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA codons and link them together to form the polypeptide chain. Termination occurs when a stop codon enters the A site, signaling the release of the complete protein. In eukaryotes, post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation, acetylation, and protein folding further process the protein to produce its active form.
The document discusses translation and post-translational modifications. It begins by describing the central dogma and differences between RNA and DNA. It then discusses the types of RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA), RNA processing in eukaryotes, tRNA structure, the process of translation including initiation, elongation, and termination, and post-translational modifications including different types like phosphorylation and glycosylation. It also discusses protein synthesis inhibitors, chemical modifications of proteins, and diseases related to post-translational modifications.
The document discusses genes in prokaryotes. It defines key terms like gene, prokaryotic gene, and operon. It explains that prokaryotic genes consist of a promoter region, RNA coding sequence, and terminator region. Gene expression involves transcription and translation processes that occur in the cytoplasm. Gene regulation is achieved through repressible and inducible operons like the trp and lac operons, which are controlled by repressor and activator proteins that bind to DNA in response to environmental stimuli.
This document provides an overview of microbial genetics. It discusses key topics like DNA, RNA, proteins, transcription, translation, gene regulation, and genetic variation. Regarding prokaryotes vs eukaryotes, it notes that prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles and their DNA is not sequestered in the nucleus. It also explains processes like DNA replication, transcription, translation, and how gene expression is regulated through operons and repressor/activator proteins binding DNA. The document outlines bacterial mechanisms of genetic variation like mutation and horizontal gene transfer through conjugation, transformation and transduction.
This document discusses the relationship between genotype and phenotype. It provides examples of how gene expression in E. coli and Serratia marcescens is dependent on environmental conditions. It also summarizes the key steps in transcription, including initiation at the promoter, elongation as RNA polymerase copies DNA into mRNA, and termination. Transcription differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, with eukaryotic mRNA undergoing additional processing before translation.
Gene expression & protein synthesisssuserc4adda
Gene expression involves the transcription of DNA into mRNA and the translation of mRNA into proteins. There are four main stages of protein synthesis: activation, initiation, elongation, and termination. Transcription is regulated by promoters, enhancers, and response elements that control the rate of transcription and influence which genes are expressed. Translation includes quality control mechanisms to ensure accuracy, such as ensuring amino acids are bound to the proper tRNAs and that termination occurs at stop codons. Mutations can occur during DNA replication or transcription and may be caused by mutagens, though cells have repair mechanisms. Recombinant DNA techniques allow genes to be spliced from one organism into a plasmid or virus for protein production in other cells.
The document provides information on the basics of molecular biology. It begins with a table comparing key attributes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It then defines molecular biology as the study of the molecular underpinnings of processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation. The basic components involved are described as DNA, RNA, and proteins. DNA stores genetic information. RNA and proteins are involved in building and regulating cells. The processes of DNA replication, transcription, translation, and their roles are summarized.
The document discusses translation, the process by which proteins are synthesized from messenger RNA (mRNA) templates. It describes the key components of translation, including mRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomes, and enzymes. The translation process involves three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves the assembly of the ribosomal complex on the mRNA. Elongation is the cyclic addition of amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached, releasing the complete protein. The document also discusses various mechanisms of regulating translation, such as via RNA-binding proteins, the 5' and 3' untranslated regions, microRNAs, and phosphorylation of initiation factors.
DNA, RNA, and proteins are the basic components of molecular biology. DNA stores genetic information and is replicated for cell division, while RNA acts as an intermediary to help synthesize proteins according to the genetic code. Molecular biologists study the interactions between these molecules to understand how life processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation work at the cellular level.
Post translation modifications(molecular biology)IndrajaDoradla
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an important role in modifying proteins after translation to achieve their functional forms. Key PTMs include:
1. Protein folding facilitated by chaperones enables proteins to achieve their native conformations.
2. Proteolytic cleavage activates proteins by cleaving propeptides or signal sequences. Enzymes like signal peptidase and procollagen peptidases are involved.
3. Covalent modifications like phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation regulate protein activity by modifying side chains. Over 150 types of covalent modifications exist.
11 how cells read the genome :from DNA to Proteinsaveena solanki
How does the cell convert DNA into working proteins? The process of translation can be seen as the decoding of instructions for making proteins, involving mRNA in transcription as well as tRNA.
dna transcription is a important topic for biology student. this presentation may be helpful for student of biology.it is useful for all types of courses as like M.Sc, B.Sc, 11th and 12th standard.
How cells read the genome from DNA to protein NotesYi Fan Chen
The document summarizes the process of transcription and translation in cells. It describes:
1) Transcription of DNA to RNA which is catalyzed by RNA polymerase and involves the formation of RNA through the addition of ribonucleotides.
2) Processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA which involves capping, splicing, and polyadenylation to form mature mRNA.
3) Translation of mRNA to protein which occurs on ribosomes and involves tRNAs carrying amino acids that are linked together through peptide bond formation catalyzed by the ribosome. Accuracy is ensured by induced fit binding and kinetic proofreading.
Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells synthesize proteins. It involves the translation of mRNA into a polypeptide chain based on the genetic code. The main stages are activation of amino acids, initiation of translation at start codons on mRNA, elongation of the polypeptide chain by adding amino acids one by one, and termination when a stop codon is reached. Chaperones assist in protein folding and post-translational modifications further process the protein.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) undergoes several types of processing in eukaryotes. mRNA contains 5' and 3' untranslated regions and a protein coding region. In eukaryotes, a 5' cap and poly-A tail are added. Introns are removed from pre-mRNA through splicing in the nucleus. Alternative splicing and cleavage sites allow one gene to code for multiple proteins. RNA editing can further modify the mRNA sequence. These processing steps allow for gene regulation and protein diversity from a single DNA sequence.
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8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
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protein synthesis in prokaryotes.pptx
1. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN PROKARYOTES:
Structure, synthesis and its reguation
Dr.Vineetha P G
22-DVM-03, PhD Scholar
Dept. Poultry Science
CVAS, Mannuthy
2.
3. • Protein structure is defined as a polymer of amino acids
joined by peptide bonds
4. • This bond is otherwise an amide linkage.
• When peptide bonds are established among more than ten
amino acids-form a polypeptide chain.
• When number of amino acids in the polypeptide chain exceeds
100 -forms a protein
5. Classification of Proteins
• Based on the molecular shape, proteins can be classified into
two types.
1. Fibrous Proteins:
• When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held
together by hydrogen and disulfide bonds, then the fiber-like
structure is formed.
• These are water-insoluble proteins.
Example – keratin (present in hair, wool, and silk) and myosin
(present in muscles), etc.
6. 2. Globular Proteins:
• This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil
around to give a spherical shape.
• These are usually soluble in water.
Example – Insulin and albumins are common examples of
globular proteins.
7. Levels of Protein Structure
Linderstrom-Lang (1952) -suggested a hierarchy of protein
structure with four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary , and
quaternary.
Primary Structure of Protein
• The Primary structure of proteins is the exact ordering of
amino acids forming their chains.
• Covalent, peptide bonds which connect the amino acids
together maintain the primary structure of a protein.
8. Secondary Structure of Protein
• These polypeptide chains fold due to the interaction between
the amine and carboxyl group of the peptide link.
• They are found to exist in two different types of structures α –
helix and β – pleated sheet structures.
• This structure arises due to the regular folding of the
backbone of the polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding
between -CO group and -NH groups of the peptide bond.
9. (a) α – Helix:
• α – Helix -a polypeptide chain forms hydrogen bonds by twisting
into a right-handed screw with the -NH group of each amino
acid residue hydrogen-bonded to the -CO of the adjacent turn
of the helix.
(b) β – pleated sheet:
• The polypeptide chains are stretched out beside one another
and then bonded by intermolecular H-bonds.
• The structure resembles the pleated folds of drapery and
therefore is known as β – pleated sheet
10.
11. Tertiary Structure of Protein
• This structure arises from further folding of the secondary
structure of the protein.
• H-bonds, electrostatic forces, disulphide linkages, and Vander
Waals forces stabilize this structure.
• It gives rise to two major molecular shapes called fibrous and
globular.
12. Quaternary Structure of Protein
• Some of the proteins are composed of two or more
polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units.
• The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to
each other is known as quaternary structure.
• A protein’s shape is determined by its primary structure (the
amino acid sequence).
13.
14.
15. TRANSCRIPTION
• Transcription is the process of copying DNA, the master instructions
for the cell, into another molecule called mRNA.
• In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm
• RNA polymerase is the protein that actually does the copying of
DNA.
• DNA is one long strand in prokaryotes, with coding genes. Each
gene codes for one protein.
• In prokaryotes, genes are organized into groups called operons.
Eg:These genes code for proteins that are used for a common function,
like metabolizing the sugar lactose, so they're all grouped together.
16. • In prokaryotes, post-transcriptional changes aren’t needed-
transcription produces mature mRNA instantly.
• Ribosomes create polypeptide chains from mRNA during
translation.
• Transcription and translation occur in the cytoplasm of
nucleus-less prokaryotes.
17. • Proteins are the active players in most cell processes,
implementing the myriad tasks that are directed by the
information encoded in genomic DNA.
• Protein synthesis is thus the final stage of gene expression.
• The polypeptide chain fold into the three-dimensional
conformation undergo various processing steps before being
converted to its active form.
18. Operon
• François Jacob and Jacques Monod - showed the organization
of bacterial genes into operons-studies on the lac operon of E.
coli.
• In E. coli, all structural genes encode enzymes needed to use
lactose lie next to each other in the lactose (or lac) operon
under the control of a single promoter, the lac promoter.
• They won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1965.
19. • In prokaryotes, operons whose gene products are required
consistently – expression is unregulated-transcribed and
translated to the protein products.
• Such genes encode enzymes in housekeeping functions -
cellular maintenance, including DNA replication, repair, and
expression, enzymes involved in core metabolism.
• Prokaryotic operons that are expressed only when needed
and are regulated by repressors, activators, and inducers
20. • Each operon includes DNA sequences that influence its own
transcription; these are located in a region called the
regulatory region.
• The regulatory region includes the promoter, to
which transcription factors can bind.
• Transcription factors influence the binding of RNA
polymerase to the promoter - to transcribe structural genes.
21.
22. Transcription
• The process of synthesis of RNA by copying the template
strand of DNA is called transcription.
• During replication -entire genome is copied but in
transcription - the selected portion of genome is copied.
• The enzyme involved is RNA polymerase.
24. Initiation
• The transcription is initiated by RNA polymerase holoenzyme
from a specific point called promotor sequence.
• Bactreial RNA polymerase consists of α, β, β’ and ω sub units.
• The binding of core polymerase to promotor is facilitated and
specified by sigma (σ) factor. (σ70 in case of E. coli).
25. • The core polymerase along with σ-factor is called Holo-
enzyme ie. RNA polymerase holoenzyme.
• In case of e. coli, promotor consists of two conserved
sequences 5’-TTGACA-3’ at -35 element and 5’-TATAAT-3’ at -
10 element.
• Binding of holoenzyme to two conserve sequence of
promotor form close complex.
26.
27. • After formation of closed complex, the RNA polymerase
holoenzyme separates 10-14 bases called melting. So that
open complex is formed.
• This changing from closed complex to open complex is
called isomerization.
• RNA polymerase starts synthesizing nucleotide. It does not
require the help of primase.
28. Elongation
• After synthesis of RNA more than 10 bp long, the σ-factor is
ejected and the enzyme move along 5’-3’ direction
continuously synthesizing RNA.
• The synthesized RNA exit from RNA exit channel.
• The synthesized RNA is proof reads by Hydrolytic editing. For
this the polymerase back track by one or more nucleotide and
cleave the RNA removing the error and synthesize the correct
one. The Gre factor enhance this proof reading process.
• Pyrophospholytic editing another mechanism of removing
altered nucleotide
29. Termination
Rho independent:
• In this mechanism, transcription is terminated due to specific
sequence in terminator DNA.
• The terminator DNA contains invert repeat which cause
complimentary pairing as transcript RNA form hair pin
structure.
• This invert repeat is followed by larger number of
TTTTTTTT(~8 bp) on template DNA. The uracil appear in RNA.
The load of hair pin structure is not tolerated by A=U base pair
so the RNA get separated from RNA-DNA heteroduplex.
30.
31. Rho dependent
• In this mechanism, transcription is terminated by rho (ρ)
protein.
• It is ring shaped single strand binding ATpase protein.
• The rho protein bind the single stranded RNA as it exit from
polymerase enzyme complex and hydrolyse the RNA from
enzyme complex.
32.
33. The three post-transcriptional modifications are as follows:
• Splicing: removal of the non coding regions (introns) and
joining all coding genes (exons) to form a functional gene.
• Capping: addition of nucleotide methylguanosine triphosphate
to the 5'-phosphate end of the mRNA. It guides the mRNA
safely to the cytoplasm upon its exit from the nucleus.
• Tailing: This involves the addition of poly-adenosine residues
to the 3'-end of the mRNA.
34. Regulation of Gene Expression
• Replication level – Any error in copying the DNA -an altered
expression.
• Transcriptional level –any error in the polymerization -change
in expression of the gene.
• Post-transcriptional level – During RNA splicing, there may be
some changes.
• Translational level –if there is an error in the attachment of
mRNA to the tRNA molecules, there may arise some changes.
35. Regulation of transcription process
• Repressors are proteins that suppress transcription of a gene in
response to an external stimulus. In other words, a repressor keeps
a gene “off.”
• Activators are proteins that increase the transcription of a gene in
response to an external stimulus. In other words, an activator turns
a gene “on.”
• Inducers are small molecules that either activate or repress
transcription depending on the needs of the cell and the availability
of substrate.
• Inducers basically help speed up or slow down “on” or “off” by
binding to a repressor or activator. In other words: they don’t work
alone.
36. Regulation by Repression
• Repression is the process whereby a repressor inhibits the
transcription of an operon.
• The repressor is usually an amino acid, and the proteins produced
from the repressible operon
Working of a Repressor
• (1) The active repressor binds to the operator.
• (2) RNA polymerase, therefore, cannot bind to the promoter, and
the operon is not transcribed.
• (3) The cell stops producing the structural proteins encoded by the
operon.
For Example:
• If an amino acid is present in the medium, E. coli does not need to
synthesize that amino acid and cease to produce the enzymes
required for its synthesis.
• The Tryptophan operon is repressible.
37.
38. Regulation by Catabolite Repression
• Some operons (e.g., lac and ara) are not expressed when glucose is
present in the medium. These operons require cAMP for their
expression.
Working:
• (1) Glucose causes cAMP levels in the cells to decrease.
• (2) When glucose decreases, cAMP levels rise.
• (3) cAMP binds to the catabolite-activator protein (CAP).
• (4) The cAMP–protein complex binds to a site near the promoter of
the operon and facilitates binding of RNA polymerase to the
promoter.
Example:
• The lac operon exhibits catabolite repression. In the presence of
lactose and the absence of glucose, the lac repressor is inactivated,
and the high levels of cAMP facilitate the binding of RNA
polymerase to the promoter. The operon is transcribed, and the
proteins that allow the cells to utilize lactose are produced.
39.
40. Regulation by Induction
• Induction is the process whereby an inducer (a small molecule) stimulates
the transcription of an operon.
Working of an Inducer:
• (1) The inducer binds to the repressor, inactivating it.
• (2) The inactive repressor does not bind to the operator.
• (3) RNA polymerase, therefore, can bind to the promoter and transcribe
the operon.
• (4) The structural proteins encoded by the operon are produced.
Example:
• If glucose is not present in the provided medium but another sugar is
available, E. coli produces the enzymes to utilize that sugar.
• The Lac operon is inducible.
43. • Following transcription is translation-production of proteins
based on mRNA blueprints.
• Components-Ribosomes, initiation factors, elongation factors,
amino acids, tRNAs, and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, peptidyl
transferases.
• Three steps : initiation, elongation, and termination.
• Posttranslational modifications happen
44.
45.
46. Initiation phase
• First, the small subunit of the ribosome and an initiator tRNA
molecule assemble on the mRNA transcript.
• The small subunit of the ribosome has three binding sites: an
amino acid site (A), a polypeptide site (P), and an exit site (E).
• The initiator tRNA molecule carrying the amino acid
methionine binds to the AUG start codon of the mRNA
transcript at the ribosome’s P site -become the first amino
acid incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain.
47.
48. Elongation phase
• First, the ribosome moves along the mRNA in the 5'-to-3'direction,
which requires the elongation factor G, in a process
called translocation.
• The tRNA that corresponds to the second codon can then bind to
the A site, a step that requires elongation factors (in E. coli, these are
called EF-Tu and EF-Ts), as well as guanosine triphosphate (GTP) as
an energy source for the process.
• Upon binding of the tRNA-amino acid complex in the A site, GTP is
cleaved to form guanosine diphosphate (GDP), then released along
with EF-Tu to be recycled by EF-Ts for the next round.
• Next, peptide bonds between the now-adjacent first and second
amino acids are formed through a peptidyl transferase activity.
49. • After the peptide bond is formed, the ribosome shifts, or
translocates, again, thus causing the tRNA to occupy the E
site.
• The tRNA is then released to the cytoplasm to pick up another
amino acid.
• In addition, the A site is now empty and ready to receive the
tRNA for the next codon.
• This process is repeated until all the codons in the mRNA have
been read by tRNA molecules, and the nascent protein must
be released from the mRNA and ribosome.
50.
51. Termination of Translation
• There are three termination codons that are employed at the
end of a protein-coding sequence in mRNA: UAA, UAG, and
UGA.
• No tRNAs recognize these codons.
• Hence release factors, binds and facilitates release of the
mRNA from the ribosome and subsequent dissociation of the
ribosome.
52. Post translational modifications to protein
• Translated proteins undergo chemical modifications before
becoming functional in different body cells
• Play a crucial role in generating the heterogeneity in proteins
53. • Glycosylation: by the addition of carbohydrates, a process
called glycosylation. It results in addition of a glycosyl group to
either asparagine, hydroxylysine, serine, or threonine.
• Acetylation: the addition of an acetyl group, usually at the N-
terminus of the protein.
• Alkylation: The addition of an alkyl group (e.g. methyl, ethyl)
• Methylation: The addition of a methyl group, usually at lysine
or arginine residues.
54. • Phosphorylation: the addition of a phosphate group, usually
to serine, tyrosine, threonine or histidine
• Biotinylation: Acylation of conserved lysine residues with a
biotin appendage.
• Glutamylation: Covalent linkage of glutamic acid residues to
tubulin and some other proteins.
• Glycylation: Covalent linkage of one to more than 40 glycine
residues to the tubulin C-terminal tail of the amino acid
sequence.
55. • Isoprenylation: The addition of an isoprenoid group (e.g.
farnesol and geranylgeraniol).
• Lipoylation: The attachment of a lipoate functionality.
• Phosphopantetheinylation: The addition of a 4'-
phosphopantetheinyl moiety to acyl carrier proteins
• Sulfation: The addition of a sulfate group to a tyrosine.
56.
57. CONCLUSION
• Even while transcription is the primary mechanism for
controlling gene expression, translation and its regulation is
critical in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• All elements of cell behaviour are ultimately regulated by
these various controls on the levels and activities of
intracellular proteins.
58. • DNA mutations modify the mRNA sequence, which modifies
the amino acid sequence.
• Mutations can shorten polypeptide chains by causing early
translation termination.
• Alternatively, a mutation in the mRNA sequence affects the
encoded amino acid.
• This amino acid variation affect protein function or folding.
60. References
• Smith, C. M., Marks, A. D., Lieberman, M. A., Marks, D. B., &
Marks, D. B. (2005). Marks’ basic medical biochemistry: A
clinical approach. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• David Hames and Nigel Hooper (2005). Biochemistry and
Genetics. Third ed. Taylor & Francis Group: New York.
• Sastry A.S. & Bhat S.K. (2016). Essentials of Medical
Microbiology. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers