Messenger RNA (mRNA) undergoes several types of processing in eukaryotes. mRNA contains 5' and 3' untranslated regions and a protein coding region. In eukaryotes, a 5' cap and poly-A tail are added. Introns are removed from pre-mRNA through splicing in the nucleus. Alternative splicing and cleavage sites allow one gene to code for multiple proteins. RNA editing can further modify the mRNA sequence. These processing steps allow for gene regulation and protein diversity from a single DNA sequence.
RNA splicing, in molecular biology, is a form of RNA processing in which a newly made precursor messenger RNA transcript is transformed into a mature messenger RNA. During splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together.
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
REGULATION OF
GENE EXPRESSION
IN PROKARYOTES & EUKARYOTES .
This presentation is enriched with lots of information of gene expression with many pictures so that anyone can understand gene expression easily.
Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to direct the assembly of a protein molecule.
Gene expression is explored through a study of protein structure and function, transcription and translation, differentiation and stem cells.
It is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product.
These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) or small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, the product is a functional RNA.
The process of gene expression is used by all known life - eukaryotes (including multicellular organisms), prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea)
Regulation of gene expression:
Regulation of gene expression includes a wide range of mechanisms that are used by cells to increase or decrease the production of specific gene products (protein or RNA).
Gene regulation is essential for viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes as it increases the versatility and adaptability of an organism by allowing the cell to express protein when needed.
CLASSIFICATION OF GENE WITH RESPECT TO THEIR EXPRESSION:
Constitutive ( house keeping) genes:
Are expressed at a fixed rate, irrespective to the cell condition.
Their structure is simpler.
Controllable genes:
Are expressed only as needed. Their amount may increase or decrease with respect to their basal level in different condition.
Their structure is relatively complicated with some response elements.
TYPES OF REGULATION OF GENE:
positive & negative regulation.
Steps involving gene regulation of prokaryotes & eukaryotes.
Operon-structure,classification of mechanisms- lac operon,tryptophan operon ,
and many things related to gene expression.
This is a video slide so anyone can understand this topic easily by seeing pictures included in this slide.
RNA splicing, in molecular biology, is a form of RNA processing in which a newly made precursor messenger RNA transcript is transformed into a mature messenger RNA. During splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together.
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
REGULATION OF
GENE EXPRESSION
IN PROKARYOTES & EUKARYOTES .
This presentation is enriched with lots of information of gene expression with many pictures so that anyone can understand gene expression easily.
Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to direct the assembly of a protein molecule.
Gene expression is explored through a study of protein structure and function, transcription and translation, differentiation and stem cells.
It is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product.
These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) or small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, the product is a functional RNA.
The process of gene expression is used by all known life - eukaryotes (including multicellular organisms), prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea)
Regulation of gene expression:
Regulation of gene expression includes a wide range of mechanisms that are used by cells to increase or decrease the production of specific gene products (protein or RNA).
Gene regulation is essential for viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes as it increases the versatility and adaptability of an organism by allowing the cell to express protein when needed.
CLASSIFICATION OF GENE WITH RESPECT TO THEIR EXPRESSION:
Constitutive ( house keeping) genes:
Are expressed at a fixed rate, irrespective to the cell condition.
Their structure is simpler.
Controllable genes:
Are expressed only as needed. Their amount may increase or decrease with respect to their basal level in different condition.
Their structure is relatively complicated with some response elements.
TYPES OF REGULATION OF GENE:
positive & negative regulation.
Steps involving gene regulation of prokaryotes & eukaryotes.
Operon-structure,classification of mechanisms- lac operon,tryptophan operon ,
and many things related to gene expression.
This is a video slide so anyone can understand this topic easily by seeing pictures included in this slide.
Eukaryotic transcription is carried out in the nucleus of the cell and proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Eukaryotes require transcription factors to first bind to the promoter region and then help recruit the appropriate polymerase.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Alternative splicing is a deviation from the conventional splicing as it removes introns in a different manner. It has a lot of significance in the development of diseases like cancers and in plants adapting to various stress conditions.
Eukaryotic transcription is carried out in the nucleus of the cell and proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Eukaryotes require transcription factors to first bind to the promoter region and then help recruit the appropriate polymerase.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Alternative splicing is a deviation from the conventional splicing as it removes introns in a different manner. It has a lot of significance in the development of diseases like cancers and in plants adapting to various stress conditions.
Post-transcriptional modification or co-transcriptional modification is a set of biological processes common to most eukaryotic cells by which an RNA primary transcript is chemically altered following transcription from a gene to produce a mature, functional RNA molecule
Gene regulation, History and Evolution , Traditional Methods:
Northern blot
quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRTPCR)
serial analysis of gene expression(SAGE) and
DNA microarrays.
DNA Chip
Respiratory stimulants: types, complete discussion on indications, contraindications, assessment, patient notes and examples of stimulants both central and respiratory
Expectorants and Antitussives: types, complete discussion on indications, contraindications, assessment, patient notes and examples of expectorants and antitussives
Complete pharmacology of Non steroidal Anti inflammatory Drugs, classification, Mechanism of action, Pharmacological actions, Indications, Contraindications, Adverse effects
Pharmacology laboratory experiment, both invivo and invitro includes interpolation, matching , bracketing, three point, four point bioassays with a note on hypoglycemic activity, acute skin irritation, acute eye irritaiton, pyrogen test, gastrointestinal motility test, physiological salt solutions
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
2. Messenger RNA (mRNA) and its region
• Messenger RNA operates as the template for protein
synthesis.
• Messenger RNA encodes genetic information from DNA as a
transcript and translates the information to a ribosome and
helps assemble amino acids in their proper order.
• mRNA is directly transcribed from DNA, whereas in case of
eukaryotes, a pre-mRNA is first transcribed from DNA and
then processed to yield mature mRNA.
3. Three main regions occur in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic mRNAs.
1. 5’ UTR:
•The 5′ untranslated region (5′ UTR; also called the
leader) is a nucleotide sequence at the 5′ end of the
mRNA that does not encode any of amino acids.
•In bacterial mRNA, this region consists of the
consensus sequence termed as the Shine-Dalgarno
sequence.
4. •During translation, Shine-Dalgarno sequence
serves as a ribosome binding site. This sequence is
found approximately seven nucleotides upstream of
the first codon that is translated into the amino acid,
also termed as start codon.
•In its 5′ untranslated region, eukaryotic mRNA has
no equivalent consensus sequence.
•Ribosomes bind to a modified 5′ end of mRNA in
eukaryotic cells.
5. 2. Protein coding region:
•The next section of mRNA is the protein-coding
region, containing the codons that describe the
protein’s amino acid sequence.
•The protein-coding region starts with a start codon
and terminates with a stop codon.
6. 3. 3’ UTR:
•The 3′ untranslated region (trailer), a nucleotide
sequence at the3′ end of the mRNA, is the last
mRNA region and not translated into protein.
•The 3′ UTR affects mRNA stability and the
translation of the protein-coding sequence of the
mRNA.
7.
8. Post-transcriptional modification in
Eukaryotes
• Transcription and translation take place concurrently in
bacterial cells; when the 3′ end of an mRNA is undergoing
transcription, ribosomes bind near the 5′ end to the Shine-
Dalgarno sequence and begin translation.
• Since transcription and translation are coupled, before
protein synthesis, bacterial mRNA has little opportunity to be
changed.
• In contrast, in eukaryotic cells, transcription and translation
are segregated both in time and space.
9. •In the nucleus, transcription takes place while
translation takes place in the cytoplasm; this
separation offers a chance to modify eukaryotic RNA
before translating it.
•Indeed, after transcription, eukaryotic mRNA is
altered extensively.
•Changes are made to the RNA molecule’s 5′ end, the 3′
end, and protein coding portion.
•Following are the examples of Post-transcriptional
modification:
10. 1. The 5 ‘Cap Addition:
• One type of eukaryotic pre-mRNA modification is the addition of a
structure called a 5 ‘cap at its 5’end.
• At the 5’ end of the mRNA, the cap consists of an additional
nucleotide and methyl groups (CH3) at the base of one or more
nucleotides at the 5′ end of the newly inserted nucleotide and the 2′-
OH group of sugar.
• After transcription initiation, the insertion of the cap takes place
quickly.
• It is possible to represent the 5′ end of pre-mRNA as 5′-pppNpNpN, in
which a ribonucleotide is represented by the letter ‘N‘ and a
phosphate by ‘p‘.
11.
12. • One of these phosphate groups is removed shortly
after the start of transcription and a guanine
nucleotide is added.
• A special 5′-5′ bond connects this guanine nucleotide
to the pre mRNA, which is somewhat different from the
normal 5′-3′ phosphodiester bond that binds all the
other RNA nucleotides.
• To the 5′ end, one or more methyl groups are added.
13. • The first of these methyl groups is attached to the
position 7 of the base of the terminal guanine
nucleotide making the base 7-methyl guanine.
• Next, in the second and third nucleotides, a methyl
group may be attached to the 2′ position of the sugar.
• Additional methyl groups can rarely be attached to the
bases of the second and third nucleotides of pre-
mRNA.
14. 2. The Poly A tail addition:
• The addition of 50 to 250 or more adenine nucleotides at the 3′
end, forming a poly(A) tail, is a second kind of modification to
eukaryotic mRNA.
• These nucleotides are not encoded in the DNA, but are inserted
in a process called polyadenylation following transcription.
• Many RNA polymerase II transcribed eukaryotic genes are
transcribed well past the end of the coding sequence; much of
the extra material is then cleaved at the3′ end and the poly(A)
tail is inserted.
15.
16.
17. •Sequences both upstream and downstream of the cleavage
site are necessary for processing the3′ end of pre-mRNA.
•Generally, downstream of the cleavage site is a sequence
rich in uracil nucleotides.
•On many mRNAs, the poly(A) tail confers stability,
increasing the time during which the mRNA remains
intact and available for translation.
•The poly(A) tail also enhances the ribosome’s attachment
to the mRNA.
18. 3. RNA splicing:
• The removal of introns by RNA splicing is the other
major type of eukaryotic pre-mRNA modification.
• Before the RNA moves to the cytoplasm, this
modification takes place in the nucleus.
• The presence of three sequences in the intron is
required for splicing.
19.
20. •One end of the intron is referred to as the 5′ splice site,
and the other end is the 3′ splice site.
•Most introns begin with GU in pre-mRNAs and end with
AG.
•The third sequence that is necessary for splicing is
present at the branch point, which is an adenine
nucleotide that is situated 18-40 nucleotides upstream of
the 3′ splice site.
21. • Splicing occurs within a large structure called the
spliceosome, which is one of the largest and most
complex of all molecular complexes.
• Five RNA molecules (U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6) and
almost 300 proteins form the spliceosome.
• Small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) ranging in length from
107 to 210 nucleotides are the RNA components; these
snRNAs are associated with proteins to form small
particles of ribonucleoprotein.
22. Process of RNA splicing:
• An intron is between an upstream exon (exon1) and a
downstream exon (exon 2) before splicing takes place.
• In two distinct stages, pre-mRNA is spliced.
• The pre-mRNA is cut at the 5 ‘splice site in the first
stage of splicing.
• This cut frees exon 1 from the intron, and the intron’s
5′ end connects to the branch point; that is, the intron
folds back on itself, creating a structure called a lariat.
23. • In this reaction, via a trans-esterification reaction, the
guanine nucleotide in the consensus sequence at the 5′
splice site binds with the adenine nucleotide at the
branch stage.
• To the cytoplasm, where it is translated, the mature
mRNA consisting of the exons spliced together is
exported.
• A cut is made at the3′ splice site in the second step of
RNA splicing and, simultaneously, the3′ end of exon 1
is covalently connected (spliced) to the5′ end of exon
2.
24. • It releases the intron as a lariat.
• When the bond splits at the branch stage, the intron
becomes linear and is then quickly degraded by
nuclear enzymes.
• To the cytoplasm, where it is translated, the mature
mRNA consisting of the exons spliced together is
exported.
25. Alternative processing pathways for RNA
splicing:
• In order to generate alternative forms of mRNA, a single pre-
mRNA is processed in various ways, resulting in the
development of various proteins from the same DNA
sequence.
• Alternative splicing, in which the same pre-mRNA can be
spliced in more than one way to generate multiple mRNAs
that are translated into different amino acid sequences and
thus different proteins, is one form of alternative processing.
• Another method of alternative processing involves the use of
several 3′ cleavage sites, where the pre-mRNA comprises two
or more potential cleavage and polyadenylation sites.
26.
27. • In the same pre-mRNA transcript, both alternative
splicing and multiple 3′ cleavage sites can exist.
• In multicellular eukaryotes, alternative processing of
pre-mRNAs is common.
• Researchers predict, that more than 90% of all human
genes undergo alternate splicing.
• The type of splicing also varies between human
tissues; compared to other tissues, the human brain
and liver tissues have more alternatively spliced RNA.
28. RNA editing:
• The coding sequence of an mRNA molecule is altered after
transcription in RNA editing, so that the protein has an amino
acid sequence that varies from that of the gene encoded.
• There were substitutions in some of the mRNA nucleotides in
some nuclear genes in mammalian cells and in some
mitochondrial genes in plant cells.
• More extensive RNA editing for certain mitochondrial genes in
trypanosome parasites has been found in the mRNA.
• More than 60 percent of the sequence is determined by RNA
editing in some of these organisms’mRNAs.
29.
30.
31. • In RNA sequences, a variety of mechanisms can bring
about changes.
• Molecules called guide RNAs (gRNAs) play a key role
in certain situations.
• gRNAs consist of sequences that are partly
complementary to pre-edited RNA segments.
• In these sequences, the two molecules goes through
base pairing.
32. • The mRNA undergoes cleavage after the mRNA is
anchored to the gRNA and nucleotides are inserted,
removed or altered according to the gRNA template
given.
• Enzymes bring about the conversion of the base in
other cases.
• For example, in humans, a gene is transcribed into
mRNA that encodes a lipid-transporting polypeptide
called apolipoprotein-B100, which is synthesized in
liver cells and has 4563 amino acids.
33. •By editing the apolipoprotein-B100 mRNA, a
truncated version of the protein called apolipoprotein-
B48 with only 2153 amino acids is synthesized in
intestinal cells.
•A cytosine base is deaminated by an enzyme in this
editing, transforming it into uracil.
•This conversion converts a codon that specifies the
glutamine amino acid into a stop codon that
terminates translation prematurely, resulting in the
protein being shortened.