The document outlines the importance of setting clear learning targets in education, emphasizing their role in enhancing student assessment and teaching quality. It discusses various types of learning targets, assessment strategies, and the relationship between validity and reliability in test construction. Additionally, it provides guidelines for teachers on developing effective assessments that reflect students' knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes.

2. A. Recall the taxonomy of educational objectives.
B. State the benefits of specifying clear and
appropriate learning targets.
C. Discuss the kinds of achievement target as indices
of learning.
D. Write illustrative learning targets from a lesson in
elementary or high school subject.
E. Distinguish desirable qualities of good test
instruments as bases for judging the quality of
classroom assessment.

3. F. Characterize types of non-test instruments.
G. Explain test standardization
H. Classify types of validity evidence.
I. Establish relationship between validity and
reliability.
J. Techniques in establishing validity and
reliability.

4. Most of the test students take are teacher-
made tests.

5. a. Short answer/paragraph answer
b. Words/pictures/maps/diagrams/e
tc.
c. Easy/difficult questions
d. Factual knowledge/application
of knowledge
e. Knowledge skills

6. As much as possible, test questions should be
given with a meaningful context.
Poor: Name the continents and ocean.
Better: Name the continents and oceans as shown on
the map. (Provide a clear map with continents and
oceans numbered).
Poor: Mark the following if true or false.
Better: Mark the following if true or false.
For the false statements, rewrite them to make them
true.
Poor: Answer the following questions:
Better: Write 2 questions that you have about the
following topics: (or) Describe how you have improved
in a skill while doing these unit. (or) List 3 things you have
learned, what you enjoyed most, and the like.

7. 2. Students should not be penalized with a low mark
because they are weak in reading or writing. These
students may be assisted in one of several ways.
A. The teacher might go over the test beforehand and
read and explain each question.
B. Tests could be done in small groups or with a partner.
C. The teacher might form a small group during the test
and quietly read each question with the group,
allowing time for students to write their answers or
give them orally.
D. In some cases it may be appropriate for some
students to have a tutor coach them beforehand.

8. 3. The teacher might choose to use a format
different from a conventional test. For
example:
a. Make up a test that has as many questions
(or groups of questions) as there are
students in the class. (Students should be
reminded during the test to double check
the numbers of their questions.)
b. A variation of this is the use of testing
questions where a variety of materials are
set up, and a group of students would
answer a set of questions or respond to
some directions.

9. This type of test has a number of advantages:
a. It allows a teacher to use pictures, news
articles, special maps, artifacts, library books,
among others.
b. The students can finish the test all at the same
time.
c. If the answers are straight forward, it could be
mark by the students immediately after the
test. Answers could then be discussed along
with the maps, or artifacts that were used.
d. It may be advantageous when testing for
students’ attainment (e.g., using an index,
locating a book in a drawer from the card
catalogue, assessing on-line information, or
interpreting a legend on a map)

10. There should be no surprises when it
comes to students evaluation: (1) students
should always be aware of evaluation
criteria and procedures; (2)they should
have a role of evaluation process; and (3)
they should receive regular feedback as to
“how they are doing.”

11. Teachers would be most interested in the
content validity of their tests and how well
their test items represent the curriculum to be
assessed, which is essential to make accurate
inferences on students’ cognitive or affective
status.
There should be no obvious content
gaps, and the number and weighting of items
of items on a test should be representative of
the importance of the content standards
being measured. Test items can be classified
as selected-response (e.g., multiple-choice or
true-false) or constructed response (e.g., essay
or short-answer).

12. When constructing either type, Popham
(2003) offers five pitfalls to avoid, all of
which interfere with making accurate
inferences of students’ status. They are:
1. Unclear directions;
2. Ambiguous statements;
3. Unintentional clues;
4. Complex phrasing; and
5. Difficult vocabulary

13. Popham (2000), suggested the following
sequence of instruction:
1. Determine the specific learning targets
and their sequence for instruction
2. A standard may be composed of one
learning target
3. Each learning target typically is a sub-
unit which includes :

14. a. the CONTENTS (what students must know)
connected with the learning target
b. the SKILLS (what students must be able to
do) connected with the learning target
c. The assessment for learning that will be
used to keep students informed of their
progress and to design next steps for
instruction
d. The assessment of learning should cover
the content for the entire unit
e. The lessons designed to teach students the
learning targets.

15. Setting clear and achievable targets
is the starting point for creating
assessments.
In other words, you need to
determine what exactly your students
should know or be able to do.
There are many areas and types of
achievement that are targeted in schools,
including knowledge, reasoning,
performance, product development, and
attitudes.

16. Clarity in learning targets means
that the learning targets (such as
knowledge, skills, and products) need to
be stated in behavioural terms and or
terms that denote something which can
be observed through the behaviour of
students.

17. Target
Area
Example
Target
Behaviour
Possible
Assessment
s
Knowledge Spell word
correctly
Quizzes, essays,
questions
Reasoning Solve math
problems
Essays observations
Performance Speak foreign
language
Observations,
rubrics
Product
Development
Create a web Rubrics
Attitudes Positive attitudes Surveys,
observations

18. The Conditions define the materials
that will be available (or unavailable) when
the objective is assessed. It generally states
what the student will be given or not given.
Example conditions for objectives might
include:
 Without the use of a calculator…
 Given a map of Europe…
 Given twelve double-digit numbers…

19. The Behaviour is a verb that
describes an observable activity-what
the students will do. The behaviour is
generally stated as an action verb,
such as : solve, compare, list, explain,
evaluate, identify, define.

20. The Criterion (also referred to as
Degree) is the standard that is used to
measure whether or not the objective has
been achieved. The criteria might be stated
as a percentage (80% correct), a time limit
(within five minutes), or another measure of
mastery.
For example, an objective might be “
Given a list of twenty states (condition), the
students will identify (behaviour) at least
fifteen of the corresponding state capitals
(criteria).”

21. It is easy for teachers to construct
appropriate assessment if they use
observable and directly measurable
objectives and learning outcomes.
For example, one of the benchmarks for
national standards (grades 3-5, social
studies) is: “ Know significant people and
their contributions in the field of
communication and technology”.

22. To target this benchmark, the following
objectives could be developed:
1. Given the name of six inventors, students
will be able to correctly match them to
a specific contribution in
communication and technology.
2. Students will be able to compare the
contributions of Thomas Edison with
those of Bill Gates, listing at least two
similarities and two differences.

25. The new paradigm of assessing
student learning includes the four
criteria of knowledge, skills, behaviour
and attitude, and emphasizes multiple
measurement.
High quality assessment plays a
very important role in improving
teaching and learning, it provides
useful measures of student
performance.

26. 1. Students are the key assessment users
a. They look to their teachers for
evidence for their success.
b. They look to their teachers for
evidence for their success

27. 2. Clear and appropriate targets are essential
A teacher cannot accurately assess
academic achievement targets that he/she
has not precisely defined. He/She must ask:
Do I know what it means to do it (the
assignment) well?
For students to become better writers:
a. Start with a highly refined vision of what
good writing looks like
b. Need a sense of how to help your students
meet that standard

28. 1. High quality assessment is essential in all
assessments
2. Sound assessments arise from clear achievement
targets
3. Valid assessments reflect clear achievement
targets
4. Begin any assessment design with a clear sense of
WHY you are conducting the assessment

29. High quality assessments can be achieved if:
1. Evaluation is based on clearly stated
objectives.
2. Evaluation procedures and techniques
should be selected in terms of clearly stated
objectives.
3. Evaluation should be comprehensive.
4. Evaluation should be continuous and an
integral part of the teaching-learning process
5. Evaluation should be diagnostic.
6. Evaluation should be cooperative.
7. Evaluation should be used judiciously.

30. In achieving clarity of learning targets,
teachers must offer international teaching.
International teaching means that all
instruction and classroom activities are aimed
at specific learning targets. Hence, teachers
need to begin with well defined targets to be
able to develop assessments that:
1. Reflect exactly what is taught; and
2. What students are expected to learn.

31. There are many benefits based on the
existence of learning's that are CLEAR and USABLE in
order to build clear learning targets .
1. Knowledge targets begin with words
like: know, list, name, identify, recall.
Procedural knowledge targets call for knowing
how to do something.

32. Example:
Use scientific notation to represent very large
and very small numbers.
Beyond knowing things outright, one may know
things via reference. There isn’t enough time to
each everything students need to know. Thus,
teachers need to determine which knowledge
students will be required to know outright and
which they will be required to learn via
conference.

33. 2. Reasoning targets deal with the skillful
use or application of knowledge. These
target start out with mental processes
like: predict, infer, classify, hypothesize,
compare, conclude, summarize,
analyze, evaluate, generalize.

34. a. Inductive reasoning uses specific facts or
evidence to infer general conclusions.
b. Deductive reasoning begins with a general
rule or principle to infer specific conclusions or
solutions.
c. Analytical reasoning requires examining
components or structure of something.
d. Comparative reasoning describes similarities
and differences between two or more items.

35. 3. Performance skills targets require the students
to demonstrate their mastery of a learning target
and to be observed.
4. Product targets are not used as frequently as
other types but are highly valued, calling for
creation of a product.
5. Dispositional targets rarely show up on state
standards but are important because they reflect
students’ attitudes about school and learning.

36. Educational Goals
These are very general statements of
what students will know and be able to
do.

37. Mathematics Example
1. Students will learn to use mathematics to
define and solve problems
2. Students will develop number sense
3. Students will develop geometric sense
4. Students will learn the fundamental
concepts of measurement

38. Science Examples
1. Students will learn to apply scientific
research methods to investigate research
questions
2. Students will develop the abilities to do
scientific inquiry.
3. Students will learn to recognize the
interconnections within and among systems

39. Language Arts Example
1. Students will learn to think critically
about the effectiveness of written text
2. Students will learn to use diff. skills and
strategies for reading
3. Students will learn to use different skills
and strategies for reading.

40. Learning Objectives are not:
1. Activities that students will engage in
(these are teaching objectives.
2. Materials students will see or use

41. Mathematics Example:
Goal 1: Students will learn to use mathematics to define and
solve problems
Objective1: Students will learn to identify questions to be
answered in real-world situations.
Objective 2: Students will learn to apply a variety of
strategies to investigate problems
Objective 3: Students will learn to identify relevant
information in a problem situation
Objective 4: Students will learn to recognize the need to
abandon or modify an unproductive approach to a solution.

42. Goal 2: Students will develop number sense
Objective 1: Students will learn to compute (add,
subtract, multiply, and divide) using whole numbers
Objective 2 : Students will learn when estimation is
a better approach than computation.
Objective 3: Students will learn to use estimation to
check the reasonableness of their answer
Objective 4: Students will learn the meaning of
basic operations and how to apply basic operations
to situations involving whole numbers

43. Goal 1: Students will learn to write in a variety of forms for
different audiences and purposes.
Objective 1: Students will learn to write for distant
audiences
Objective 2: Students will learn to write to persuade
others
Objective 3: Students will learn to write to express
themselves
Objective 4: Students will learn to write to inform others

44. Two inappropriate learning objectives are:
1. Students will conduct chemistry experiments.
2. Students will write in their mathematics journal
every day.
Learning targets emphasize the link between
instruction and assessment since writing these
objectives, you should always be thinking about
assessment. How will you determine if students have
learned what you have taught? What observable
behaviours (either verbally or in writing) will
demonstrate that students have met the objectives?
If you find these questions difficult to answer then you
probably have not written a very good learning
objectives.

45. Marzano and Kendall (1996) identified five
types of learning targets:
1. Knowledge and Simple Understanding
2. Deep Understanding and Reasoning
3. Skills
4. Products
5. Affective

46. 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy
2. National, Regional, and District Standards
3. Textbooks
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The three types of learning:
1. Cognitive- mental skills (Knowledge)
2. Affective- growth in feelings (Attitude)
3. Psychomotor- manual or physical skills (Skills)

47. Learning outcomes in the cognitive domain are divided into
two major classes:
1. Knowledge
a. Remembering previews learned
material
b. Knowledge of ways and means of
dealing with specifics
c. knowledge of universals and
abstractions in a field
2. Intellectual abilities and skills
a. Comprehension
b. Application
c. Synthesis
d. Evaluation

48. The learning outcomes to be measured are
useful in test construction when they are stated as
terminal performance which are observable. It
means that they should clearly indicate the student
performance to be demonstrated at the end of the
learning experience.
Quellmalz (1987 presented list of learning
outcomes which are to defined in terms of specific
learning outcomes:

49. At the end of this unit in achievement test
planning, the student will demonstrate that he or she:
1. Knows the meaning of common terms;
2. knows specific facts about test planning;
3. knows the basic procedures for planning an
achievement test;
4. comprehends the relevant principles of
testing; and
5. applies the principles in test planning.

50. The next tasks for teacher is to list specific types
of specific performance that are to be accepted as
evidence that the outcomes have been achieved.
The teacher has to ask himself what specific types of
performance will show that a student knows the
meaning of common terms.

51. 1. knows the meaning of common terms
a. identifies the correct definition of terms
b. Identifies the meaning of terms when used in
context
c. Distinguishes between terms on the basis of
meaning
d. Selects the most appropriate terms when
describing testing procedures

52. 2. Comprehends the relevant principles of testing
a. describes each principle in his or her own
words
b. matches a specific example to each principle
c. explains the relevance of each principle to
the major steps in test planning.
d. predicts the most probable effect of violating
each principles
e. formulates a test plan that is in harmony with
the principles

53. The cognitive domain involves knowledge
and the development of intellectual skills.
This includes the recall or recognition of
specific facts, procedural patterns, and
concepts that serve in the development of
intellectual abilities and skills.

54. 1. Knowledge. Recall data or information.
2. Comprehension. Understand the meaning,
translation, etc.
3. Application. Use a concept in a new situation…
4. Analysis. Separates material or concepts into
component parts…
5. Synthesis. Builds a structure or pattern from diverse
elements.
6. Evaluation. Make judgements about the value of
ideas or materials

55. This domain includes the manner in which we
deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and
attitudes.
The five major categories are listed from the
simplest behavior to the most complex.

56. 1. Receiving Phenomena. Awareness, willingness to
hear, selected attention.
2. Responding to Phenomena. Active participation
on the part of the learners.
3. Valuing. The worth or value a person attaches to a
particular object, phenomenon or behavior.
4. Organization. Organizes values into priorities by
contrasting different values, resolving conflicts
between them, and creating unique value system.
5. Internalizing Values (characterization). Has a value
system that controls their behavior.

57. The psychomotor domain includes
physical involvement, coordination, and use of
the motor-skill areas.
The seven major categories are listed from the
simplest behavior to the most complex.

58. 1. Perception. The ability to use sensory cues to guide
motor activity.
2. Set. Readiness to act.
3. Guided Response. The early stages in learning a
complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error.
4. Mechanism. This is the intermediate stage in learning
a complex skill.
5. Complex Overt Response. The skillful performance of
motor acts that involve complex movement patterns.
6. Adaptation. Skills are well developed and the
individual can modify movement patterns to fit
special requirements
7. Origination. Creating new movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or specific problem.

59. Learning Targets for Performance Assessment
Therearethree types of standards:
1. Subject Area
2. Thinking and Reasoning
3. Lifelong Learning

60. How toSelect Assessment Target
Subject area standards focus on the content to be
taught and mastered. For example, some standards
for earth and space content in science include:
1. Understand basic features of the earth.
2. Understand basic Earth processes.
3. Understand essential ideas about the
composition and structure of the universe and the
Earth’s place in it.

61. Thinking and reasoning standards are often
embedded in con tent standards, but focus on how
students demonstrate their thinking processes and
reasoning strategies.
Examples of thinking and reasoning
standards include:
1. Understands and applies basic
principles of presenting an argument.
2. Understands and applies basic
principle of hypothesis testing and scientific
inquiry.

62. Lifelong learning standards focus on
interpersonal and intrapersonal skills.
Interpersonal skills address how well
learners communicate and work with
others. Intrapersonal standards address
how one regulates one’s own attitudes,
such as self-control.

63. LearningTarget for reading
By the end of Second Grade…
 Use skills and strategies
 Understand what is read
 Read Fluently
 Show Effort to Become a Life-Long
Reader
 Spelling

64. LearningTargets for Math
By the end of Second Grade…
Content Standards:
Number Sense- Explore and use numbers
(especially 0-100) through varied and
multiple experience, including:
 Number and Numeration
 Computation
 Estimation
 Measurement
 Attributes and Dimensions

65. Whatis A Test
Test is a deliberate attempt by people to
acquire information about themselves or
others (Aanastasi 1998).

66. Test serve three functions:
1. They provide information that are useful
for improvement of instruction;
2. in making administrative decisions; and
3. for guidance purposes
The word “test” is usually used to
describe a systematic procedure for
obtaining a sample of student behaviour. A
Test is a Sample of Behaviour, Products,
Answers, or Performances from the Domain.

67. There are 3 basic concepts in understanding
what is a test is:
1. A Test Focuses on a Particular Domain
What is Domain??
A test is designed to measure a particular
body of knowledge, skills, abilities, or
performances which are of interest to the test
user. A test domain can represent something as
simple as 4th Grade Mathematics, or a more
abstract construct such as “intelligence”.

68. A construct is a theoretical idea
developed to describe and to organize some
aspect of existing knowledge. Construct
allows teachers to describe and organize
observed differences in behaviour among
people.
The name of a domain carries powerful
cultural meanings. When people use a test,
they often interpret performance in terms of
the context, meanings, and cultural
sensibilities they associate with a test’s name-
and a name doesn’t mean the same thing to
al people

69. 2. A Test is a Sample of Behaviour, Products,
Answers, or Performance from the Domain.
What is Sampling??
A test is a sample of behaviour,
products or performances from a larger
domain of interest. Teachers could never
ask students all of the possible test questions
about fourth-grade arithmetic. So, they
select a sample of problems represent the
important parts of the domain

70. 3. A Test is Made up of Items
Items sampled from a domain
represent the basic building blocks of a test.
There are two main types of items:
(1) Selection Types of items require the
students to select the correct or the best
answer from the given options.
Examples: multiple, choice, matching type,
true or false
(2) Supply Types of test items are fill-in-
the blanks, or essay types.

71. A test serve as a vehicle to observe an
attribute, such as a written test, an
observation or an oral question. The test
score refers to an indication of what was
observed through the test and can be
qualitative in nature.
To a teacher, a test gathers important
information- does the student really get what
the teacher is trying to teach him for the past
few weeks? Standardized test are certainly
not the only kind of test teachers use, and
tests are not the only way teachers can
assess what students have learned.