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Political Science 2 – Comparative Politics - Power Point #8

The document outlines a political science lecture on modern world governments focusing on Russia and China, detailing their historical contexts, current policy challenges, and political structures. It highlights Russia's attempts to rebuild state power under Putin, addressing issues like corruption, demographics, and political culture, while China's challenges include economic growth, political corruption, and social conditions within its party-state structure. Both countries show complex relationships between state authority and citizen participation, alongside issues of accountability and governance.

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Dr. Tabakian’s Political Science 2 Modern World Governments – Fall 2012 Power Point Presentation – October 16th & October 18th
COURSE LECTURE TOPCS This Week’s Lecture Covers: •Russia Rebuilding The Russian State Current Policy Challenges Historical Legacies The Contemporary Constitutional Order Russian Political Culture In The Post Soviet Period Political Participation Interest Articulation: Between Statism & Pluralism Parties And The Aggregation Of Interests The Politics Of Economic Reform Rule Adjudication: Toward The Rule Of Law Russia And The International Community
COURSE LECTURE: WEEK #8 (2) •China Current Policy Challenges Historical Setting Social Conditions Structure Of The Party-State Political Socialization Political Culture Political Participation Interest Articulation And Aggregation Policymaking And Implementation Policy Performance Hong Kong Taiwan China’s Political Future
COUNTRY BIO: RUSSIA (1)
COUNTRY BIO: RUSSIA (2) • Population: • Language: – Russian, other languages of ethnic nationalities – 142.4 million • Religion: • Territory: – Russian Orthodox 70-80%; Other Christian 1-2%; – 6.593 sq. miles Muslim 8-9%; Buddhist 0.6%; Jewish 0.3% • Year of Independence: – 1991 • Year of Current Constitution: – 1993 • Head of State: – President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin • Head of Government: – Premier Mikhail Efimovich Fradkov
BACKGROUND: REBUILDING THE RUSSIAN STATE • Sustainability of Russia’s great power status is tenuous. • Putin’s policies – Diminishing the realm of free association outside the state • “resource curse” – High levels of corruption, low accountability, and low investment in human capital • Severe demographic crisis – Mortality rates, particularly among adult males – Low birthrates – Net loss of close to a million people per year • Grave threat to Russia’s national security and economic viability
CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES (1) • Putin elected March 2000 – Undertook a steady effort to rebuild state power – Attacked the power of the so-called oligarchs – Weakened the independence of the chief executives of the country’s regions (the governors) establishing new federal districts overseen by presidentially appointed representatives – Secured power to dismiss governors for violations of the law – Removing them as ex-officio members of the upper chamber of the parliament • High levels of support early for his “managed democracy”
CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES (2) • But now referenced by some as “sovereign democracy” – Chain of command – Accountability – May conflict with state sovereignty
CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES (3) • Only partially successful in achieving his goals – Role of oil has helped – Some of his actions (suppression of the independent media and the state’s takeover of the assets of the oil company Yukos) have discouraged business investment and fueled capital flight. – Reliance on intimidation/removal of rivals – End result: has undercut democratic checks and balances on central power; over-centralization
HISTORICAL LEGACIES (1) • The Tsarist Regime • The Communist Revolution and the Soviet Order – Lenin – Stalin – Mikhail Gorbachev • Glasnost • Political institutions of the transition period: Demise of the USSR • Political institutions of the transition period: Russia 1990-1993
HISTORICAL LEGACIES (2)
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER (1) • 1993 constitution combined elements of presidentialism and parliamentarism – Separation of executive, legislative, and judicial branches – Federal division of power between the central and regional levels of government – Gave the president wide power
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER (2)
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PRESIDENCY (1) • President appoints the prime minister and the rest of government • Has the right to issue presidential decrees, which have the force of law • Prime minister primarily responsible for economic and social policy • President directly oversees the ministries and other bodies concerned with coercion, law enforcement, and state security
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PRESIDENCY (2) • President can dissolve parliament or dismiss the government • Head of state and commander of chief • Security Council – chaired by the president – Formulates policy in foreign & defense areas and more • State Council – heads of regional governments • Public Chamber- created by Putin in 2005 – Made up of 126 members from selected civic, sports, artistic, and other NGOS – Purpose to deliberate on matters of public policy – May, along with other “councils” diminish the role of Parliament
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PRESIDENCY (3) • Refers to the senior echelon of leadership in the executive branch – Charged with formulating the main lines of national policy • Especially economic and social • Corresponds to the Cabinet in Western parliamentary systems • Not a party government • President Putin appoint Fradko, a relatively obscure figure as prime minister
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (1) • Federal Assembly is bicameral – Lower house: State Duma – Upper house: Federation Council • Legislation originates in the Duma – Federal Council can then only pass it, reject it, or reject it and call for the formation of an agreement commission to iron out differences. – If the Duma rejects the upper house’s changes, it can override the Federation Council by a two-thirds vote and send the bill directly to the president.
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (2)
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (3) • When the bill has cleared parliament, it goes to the president for signature. – If the president refuses to sign the bill, it returns to the Duma. – The Duma may pass it with his amendments or it may override the president’s veto with a two-thirds vote. – The Federation Council must then also approve the bill, by a simple majority if it approves the president’s amendments or by a two-thirds vote if it chooses to override the president. • Legislative elections • Pro-Putin party: United Russia
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (4) • Committees • Federal Council: designed as an instrument of federalism • Executive-legislative relations – Yeltsin years – Putin: power shifted away from parliament
THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: CONSISUTIONAL COURT • 1993 Constitution provides for judicial review by the Constitutional Court – Under Putin, the court has taken care to avoid crossing the president. – Putin wishes to move the seat of the Court to St. Petersburg. • Goal to marginalize it politically • Central Government and regions – Ethnic republic guard their special status • Chechnia-independence • Beslan • 20 other ethnic republics; accord with Russia – Municipalities
RUSSIAN POLITICAL CULTURE IN THE POST SOVIET PERIOD • Produce of centuries of autocratic rule • Rapid, but uneven improvement in education and living standards • Exposure to Western standards of political life • Result: contradictory bundle of values in contemporary political culture – Sturdy core of democratic values – Firm belief in the need for a strong state – Disillusionment with democratization and market reform in Russia – Support individual rights, but less so for unpopular minorities – Nostalgia for the old order and aspirations for a better future – Surveys suggest the citizens have little faith in the current political system – Putin
TRUST IN INSTITUTIONS
APPROVAL RATINGS
RUSSIAN POLITICAL CULTURE IN THE POST- SOVIET PERIOD • Political socialization – Education • Ideological content has changed – Church – Mass media – Overall, much less subject to direct state control than it was in the Soviet era
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION • The importance of social capital – Scare in Russia – Participation in civic activity has been extremely limited. – Weakness of intermediate associations – Since the late 1980s, political participation, apart from voting, has seen a brief, intense surge followed by a protracted ebb. – Not psychologically disengaged or socially isolated • Half the Russian population reports reading national newspapers regularly or sometimes and discussing problems of the country with friends. • Vote in high proportions • Prize the right not to participate – Shattering of expectations for change
SUPPORT FOR OPPOSITION
PARTY LIST VOTE
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION • Elite recruitment – Refers to the institutional processes in a society by which people gain access to positions of influence and responsibility – Soviet regime: Communist Party, nomenklatura – Today, mixture of career types
INTEREST ARTICULATION: BETWEEN STATISM AND PLURALISM • NGOs • Elements of corporatism • Three examples of associational groups – The Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs – The League of Committees of Soldiers’ Mothers – The Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia • New Sectors of Interest – Many new associations – More collective action by business and other sectors – More open bargaining over the details of policy
PARTIES AND THE AGGREGATION OF INTERESTS • Elections and party development – The 1989 and 1990 elections – The 1993 and 1995 elections – The 1996 presidential election – The 1999 election – Putin and the 2000 presidential race – The 2003 and 2004 elections • Party strategies and the social bases of party support • Evolution of the party system – Hampered by institutional factors such as the powerful presidency – Sponsoring shadow leftist or nationalist parties to divide the opposition
SEAT SHARES OF PARLIAMENTARY PARTIES
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION RESULTS (1)
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION RESULTS (2)
RUSSIAN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION
SOCIAL BASES OF SUPPORT FOR PARTIES
PARTY SUPPORT
POLITICS OF ECONOMIC REFORM (1) • Stabilization – Shock therapy • From communism to capitalism – Heavy commitment of resources to military production in the Soviet Union complicated the task of reform; so does the size of the country
POLITICS OF ECONOMIC REFORM (2) • Privatization – “Loans for shares” • Consequences of privatization – Unsustainable debt trap – No strong institutional framework to support it; no real market economy in place • Social conditions – Small minority became wealthy in the 1990s – Most people suffered a net decline – Unemployment
RUSSIAN GROWTH & INFLATION
RUSSIAN FEDERAL BUDGET
RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (1) • Gorbachev’s goal: make the Soviet Union a law-governed state • The Procuracy – Comparable to the system of federal and state prosecuting attorneys in the United States – Has more wide-ranging responsibilities and is organized as a centralized hierarchy headed by the procurator-general
RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (2) • The Judiciary – Bench has been relatively week – Lip service to judicial independence – Unitary hierarchy: all courts of general jurisdiction are federal courts – Commercial courts • Supreme Commercial Court is both the highest appellate court for its system of courts as well as the source of instruction and direction to lower commercial courts. • Judges nominated by the president and confirmed by the Federation Council – Ministry of Justice oversees the court system; lacks any direct authority over the procuracy
RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (3) • The Bar – “Advocates” – Comparable to defense attorneys in the U.S. – Role has expanded considerably with the spread of the market economy • Constitutional Adjudication – Court established for constitutional review of the official acts of government – Again, challenge of presidential authority – Under Putin, the court has not issued any rulings restricting the president’s power.
RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (4) • Obstacles to the Rule of Law – Abuse of legal institutions by political authorities – Corruption • Bribery
RUSSIA AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY • Russia has not fully embraced integration into the international community. • Expanded military presence in several former Soviet republics • Chechnia • Post-communist transition has been difficult and incomplete.
COUNTRY BIO: CHINA (1)
COUNTRY BIO: CHINA • Population: • Language: – 1,307.56 million – Standard Chinese or Mandarin • Territory: (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect) – 3,705,386 sq. miles – Yue (Cantonese) • Year of PRC Inauguration: – Wu (Shanghaiese) – 1949 – Minbei (Fuzhou) • Year of Current Constitution: – Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese) – 1982 – Xiang • Head of Party and State: – Hu Jintao – Gan • Head of Government: – Hakka dialects – Wen Jiabao – Minority languages • Religion: – Daoism (Taoism), Buddhist, Muslim 2-3% – Christian 1% (estimated) – Note: officially atheist
BACKGROUND (1) • Mao Zedong – 1949 Communist victory – Formally inaugurated the People’s Republic of China – Until his death in 1976, he was the chief architect and agitator for a project to lead an agrarian people to modernization, prosperity and communist utopia. – After his death • Successors rejected most of the revolutionary project; declaring it a failure essentially. • Launched new era of reform
BACKGROUND • New economic pragmatism – Economic growth highest priority – Communist Party’s main assignment – Retreated from government’s direct administration of the economy • Superiority of capitalism • Socialist market economy – But have rejected political pluralism • Tolerates no challenge to the Communist Party’s monopoly on political power – Institutionalization in China • Promote more transparency, stability, and responsiveness • To encourage investment and innovation • Safeguard against arbitrary dictatorships and disruptive politics – Better crafted laws, new legality, more assertive representative assemblies, and popularly elected grassroots leaders
CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES • Political corruption, rural unrest, growing wealth gap, and severe pollution • Fostering economic growth and deliver a better material life for Chinese citizens – Economy has grown at a rate of nearly 10 percent per year since 1980 • Economic success has not been costless – Corruption – Rural reform • Land not privately owned, but contracted for agricultural use by Chinese farmers • Farmers poorly compensated – Growing wealth gap – Public disturbances • China has thoroughly abandoned the strictures of communist ideology; experienced an awesome economic revolution. – Opened up political processes to most diversified inputs – But have also firmly suppressed organized challenges to the Communist Party
HISTORICAL SETTING • Confusianism – Conservative philosophy – Conceived of a society and the polity in terms of an ordered hierarchy of harmonious relationships • Imperial order to the Founding of the PRC • Nationalist Party • Chinese Communist Party • Mao Zedong • History of the PRC – Deng Xiaoping – Lean to One Side – Great Leap Forward – Retreat from the Leap – Cultural Revolution
SOCIAL CONDITIONS • Huge population – World’s most populous country – Most live in the countryside, but now that is only 57% compared to 85% in 1980 – Rural industrialization and growth of towns – Rural collective industry is the most dynamic industrial sector • The population is concentrated in the eastern third of the land – Only ¼ of China’s land is arable – Land shortage/reduction in cultivated area – Land is used for property borders, burial grounds, and bigger houses. – So the problem of feeding the large population is expected to continue • China is a multiethnic state – 92 percent of Chinese are ethnically Han, but there are fifty-five recognized ethnic minorities, ranging in number from a few thousand to more than 16 million. – Tibet and Xinjiang (unrest)
STRUCTURE OF THE PARTY STATE • Design Features – Guardianship • Describes the main relationship between the Communist Party and society • Representation of “historical best interests” • Mass line – Party Organization • Democratic centralism – Leninist principle • Refers mainly to consultation: opportunities for discussion, criticism, and proposals in party organizations – Two Hierarchies, with Party Leadership • Division of labor between party and government structures
STRUCTURE OF THE PARTY STATE: GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES • National People’s Congress (NPC) – legislative • Elected for five-year terms by delegates in provincial-level congresses and the armed forces • Assemble once annually for a plenary session of about two weeks • Always large body • Formally has extensive powers: amendment of the constitution, passage and amendment of legislation, approval of economic plans,etc. • Is it a rubber-stamp assembly? Was during Maoist years, but now…. • It is still too large and meets too infrequently, but the lawmaking role of the less cumbersome NPC Standing Committee seems to be gaining.
CENTRAL STRUCTURES
STRUCTURE OF THE PARTY STATE • State Council-executive functions • Composed the premier, who is head of government, and his cabinet of vice-premiers, state councillors, ministers, auditor general, and secretary general • Has its own Standing Committee, which meets twice weekly • As in most parliamentary systems, the bulk of legislation is drafted by specialized ministries and commissions under the direction of the cabinet • President- Head of State – purely ceremonial office • Communist Party Leadership – Judiciary: • Supreme People’s Court • Supreme People’s Procuratorate – Bridge between public security agencies and the courts
STRUCTURE OF THE PARTY STATE • Party Structures – National Party Congress – Central Committee • Exercises the powers of the congress between sessions • Chinese political elites – Politburo • Politburo Standing Committee – Top Leader and the Succession Problem – Party Bureaucracy
CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY
PARTY & GOVERNMENT EXECUTIVES
STRUCTURE OF THE PARTY STATE • People’s Liberation Army – Does not dictate policy to party leaders, but it is the self-appointed guardian of Chinese sovereignty and nationalism. – Preventing Taiwan’s independence • Party Dominance – Nomenklatura system • The most important mechanism by which the Communist Party exerts control over officials. – Party membership – Party Core Groups – Overlapping Directorships – Elite Recruitment • Rule by Law – Socialist Legality – Legal Reform – Criticism of Legal Practices
POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION • Mass Media – Ordinary citizens now exposed to news and opinions about public affairs – Hong Kong • Relatively free and critical mass media – Chinese journalists expose government wrongdoings and thwart official efforts to suppress news of disasters. – Chinese leaders reserve the right to shut down publications that in their view go too far. – Internet: 50,000 cyber police; still difficult to monitor • Education System – Past: very ideological; persecution of scholars – Today: respect for expertise • Fall 2006 reduced the seven compulsory courses on political ideology and party history to four, in the first major curricular change in twenty-five years.
POLITICAL CULTURE • From radicalism to “reform and opening” to the outside world • Political Knowledge – Not uniformly distributed in China – More active knowledge and interest found in men, the more highly educated, and Chinese with higher incomes. – Beijing • Here people discuss politics very frequently • Political Values – Reject every democratic value and support for democratic values generally low – Influence of non-Chinese political socialization is evident – Show an impact of socioeconomic development; urban Chinese are much more supportive of democratic values than are mainland Chinese generally
SUPPORT FOR DEMOCRATIC VALUES
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION • Changes in the Rules – Political participation: was required; now optional – Mao: mass mobilization campaign; contemporary leadership does not attempt to rouse the mass public to realize policy objectives – Rejection of mass mobilization as the dominant mode of political participation • Rather: express opinions and participate through regular, official channels – hotlines, letters to newspaper editors, etc. • Local Congress Elections • Village Committees • Unacceptable Political Participation • Protestors and Reformers – Democracy Movement – Tiananmen massacre of June 4, 1989
BEIJING POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
INTEREST ARTICULATION AND AGGREGATION • Organizations Under Party Leadership – Satellite parties – Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference – Important mass organizations • All-China Federation of Trade Unions • Women’s Federation – Mass organizations represent the interests of the Communist Party to the organized “interest groups” it dominates, not vice versa. • Transmission belts
INTEREST ARTICULATION AND AGGREGATION • NGOs – Nongovernmental organizations – Most active in environmental issues – Seek embeddedness – All-Chinese Women’s Federation: responsible for more than 3,000 social organizations dealing with women’s issues • GONGOs – Government-organized nongovernmental organizations – Front operations for government agencies – Set up to take advantage of the interest of foreign governments and international NGOs to support the emergence of Chinese civil society. – Most interesting: business associations set up to organize firms • The Self-Employed Laborers Association • The Private Enterprises Association • Federation of Industry and commerce
POLICYMAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION • Policymaking – Three tiers in policymaking 1. Politburo and its Standing Committee 2. Leading small groups (LSGs) 3. Relevant party departments and government ministries – From agenda setting to implementing regulations • Five stages: agenda setting; inter-agency review; Politburo approval; NPC review, debate, and passage; and the drafting of implementing regulations • Two most important states: interagency review and drafting of implementing regulations • Policy implementation – Monitoring – Policy priorities – Adapting policy to local conditions • Corruption
CHINESE POLICY PROCESS
POLICY PERFORMANCE • Economic Growth – Success story; opening up to foreign trade and investment • Trade balances • Scarcity prices versus government controlled or two-track pricing system – Decentralization – Reform of SOEs • Environmental Degradation – Economic growth = serious environmental damage – Health and productivity costs – “first development, then environment” – EPBs local environmental protection bureaus – State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) • Underfunded
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE
FOREIGN TRADE
POLICY PERFORMANCE • Population Control – Little regulation during Maoist years; 1978 population close to a billion – One-child family policy • State-sponsored family planning added to the constitution • Ideal family had one child • Most couples required to stop childbearing after one or two births • Married couples in urban areas restricted to one child • In rural areas, married couples are subject to rules that differ across provinces. In some, two children permitted. In others, only one child permitted; in most provinces, a second child is permitted only if the first is a girl. • Difficult to implement; many sons ideal: a married daughter joins the household of her husband, while a married son remains in the household to support aging parents. • Policy implementation – Carrots and sticks utilized to encourage one child policy • Perverse outcomes – Shortage of girls – Sex-selective abortions
POPULATION STRUCTURE
HONG KONG • 1842 and 1860, the island of Hong Kong, and adjacent territory on the Chinese mainland, were ceded by treaty to the British in perpetuity. – Due to result of wars fought to impose trade on China – For nearly a century, China was a British colony. • 1984, the Chinese communist authorities elaborated the principle of “one country, two systems” applicable to Hong Kong after 1997 – Hong Kong reverted to Chinese sovereignty in 1997 but would continue to enjoy a “high degree of autonomy.” – Chinese authorities hope the outcome will woo Taiwan back to the PRC, too.
TAIWAN • Governed by the Nationalists as the Republic of China since 1945 – 100 miles off the east coast of the Chinese mainland. – Communist “liberation” of Taiwan – Korean war; American interests in the security of Taiwan • Two major events affected Taiwan’s status – Lost its membership in the U.N. and its seat on the Security Council to China in 1971 – U.S. recognized China diplomatically, downgrading the relationship with Taiwan to one of unofficial liaison • Today fewer than 30 countries recognize Taiwan. • Taiwan’s public does not support unification.
CHINA’S POLITICAL FUTURE • Still primarily a communist state – Room for optimism? • The dramatic changes in the Chinese economy, polity, and society, are as much a by-product of reform as a direct product of reform policies. – Room for optimism? • Authoritarianism has not survived intact with economic modernization in many East Asian countries. • Prediction: The party will continue to transform China in the years to come and to transform itself in order to continue to rule.

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Political Science 2 – Comparative Politics - Power Point #8

  • 1.
    Dr. Tabakian’s PoliticalScience 2 Modern World Governments – Fall 2012 Power Point Presentation – October 16th & October 18th
  • 2.
    COURSE LECTURE TOPCS ThisWeek’s Lecture Covers: •Russia Rebuilding The Russian State Current Policy Challenges Historical Legacies The Contemporary Constitutional Order Russian Political Culture In The Post Soviet Period Political Participation Interest Articulation: Between Statism & Pluralism Parties And The Aggregation Of Interests The Politics Of Economic Reform Rule Adjudication: Toward The Rule Of Law Russia And The International Community
  • 3.
    COURSE LECTURE: WEEK#8 (2) •China Current Policy Challenges Historical Setting Social Conditions Structure Of The Party-State Political Socialization Political Culture Political Participation Interest Articulation And Aggregation Policymaking And Implementation Policy Performance Hong Kong Taiwan China’s Political Future
  • 4.
  • 5.
    COUNTRY BIO: RUSSIA(2) • Population: • Language: – Russian, other languages of ethnic nationalities – 142.4 million • Religion: • Territory: – Russian Orthodox 70-80%; Other Christian 1-2%; – 6.593 sq. miles Muslim 8-9%; Buddhist 0.6%; Jewish 0.3% • Year of Independence: – 1991 • Year of Current Constitution: – 1993 • Head of State: – President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin • Head of Government: – Premier Mikhail Efimovich Fradkov
  • 6.
    BACKGROUND: REBUILDING THE RUSSIAN STATE • Sustainability of Russia’s great power status is tenuous. • Putin’s policies – Diminishing the realm of free association outside the state • “resource curse” – High levels of corruption, low accountability, and low investment in human capital • Severe demographic crisis – Mortality rates, particularly among adult males – Low birthrates – Net loss of close to a million people per year • Grave threat to Russia’s national security and economic viability
  • 7.
    CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES(1) • Putin elected March 2000 – Undertook a steady effort to rebuild state power – Attacked the power of the so-called oligarchs – Weakened the independence of the chief executives of the country’s regions (the governors) establishing new federal districts overseen by presidentially appointed representatives – Secured power to dismiss governors for violations of the law – Removing them as ex-officio members of the upper chamber of the parliament • High levels of support early for his “managed democracy”
  • 8.
    CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES(2) • But now referenced by some as “sovereign democracy” – Chain of command – Accountability – May conflict with state sovereignty
  • 9.
    CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES(3) • Only partially successful in achieving his goals – Role of oil has helped – Some of his actions (suppression of the independent media and the state’s takeover of the assets of the oil company Yukos) have discouraged business investment and fueled capital flight. – Reliance on intimidation/removal of rivals – End result: has undercut democratic checks and balances on central power; over-centralization
  • 10.
    HISTORICAL LEGACIES (1) •The Tsarist Regime • The Communist Revolution and the Soviet Order – Lenin – Stalin – Mikhail Gorbachev • Glasnost • Political institutions of the transition period: Demise of the USSR • Political institutions of the transition period: Russia 1990-1993
  • 11.
  • 12.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER (1) • 1993 constitution combined elements of presidentialism and parliamentarism – Separation of executive, legislative, and judicial branches – Federal division of power between the central and regional levels of government – Gave the president wide power
  • 13.
  • 14.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PRESIDENCY (1) • President appoints the prime minister and the rest of government • Has the right to issue presidential decrees, which have the force of law • Prime minister primarily responsible for economic and social policy • President directly oversees the ministries and other bodies concerned with coercion, law enforcement, and state security
  • 15.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PRESIDENCY (2) • President can dissolve parliament or dismiss the government • Head of state and commander of chief • Security Council – chaired by the president – Formulates policy in foreign & defense areas and more • State Council – heads of regional governments • Public Chamber- created by Putin in 2005 – Made up of 126 members from selected civic, sports, artistic, and other NGOS – Purpose to deliberate on matters of public policy – May, along with other “councils” diminish the role of Parliament
  • 16.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PRESIDENCY (3) • Refers to the senior echelon of leadership in the executive branch – Charged with formulating the main lines of national policy • Especially economic and social • Corresponds to the Cabinet in Western parliamentary systems • Not a party government • President Putin appoint Fradko, a relatively obscure figure as prime minister
  • 17.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (1) • Federal Assembly is bicameral – Lower house: State Duma – Upper house: Federation Council • Legislation originates in the Duma – Federal Council can then only pass it, reject it, or reject it and call for the formation of an agreement commission to iron out differences. – If the Duma rejects the upper house’s changes, it can override the Federation Council by a two-thirds vote and send the bill directly to the president.
  • 18.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (2)
  • 19.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (3) • When the bill has cleared parliament, it goes to the president for signature. – If the president refuses to sign the bill, it returns to the Duma. – The Duma may pass it with his amendments or it may override the president’s veto with a two-thirds vote. – The Federation Council must then also approve the bill, by a simple majority if it approves the president’s amendments or by a two-thirds vote if it chooses to override the president. • Legislative elections • Pro-Putin party: United Russia
  • 20.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: PARLIAMENT (4) • Committees • Federal Council: designed as an instrument of federalism • Executive-legislative relations – Yeltsin years – Putin: power shifted away from parliament
  • 21.
    THE CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER: CONSISUTIONAL COURT • 1993 Constitution provides for judicial review by the Constitutional Court – Under Putin, the court has taken care to avoid crossing the president. – Putin wishes to move the seat of the Court to St. Petersburg. • Goal to marginalize it politically • Central Government and regions – Ethnic republic guard their special status • Chechnia-independence • Beslan • 20 other ethnic republics; accord with Russia – Municipalities
  • 22.
    RUSSIAN POLITICAL CULTUREIN THE POST SOVIET PERIOD • Produce of centuries of autocratic rule • Rapid, but uneven improvement in education and living standards • Exposure to Western standards of political life • Result: contradictory bundle of values in contemporary political culture – Sturdy core of democratic values – Firm belief in the need for a strong state – Disillusionment with democratization and market reform in Russia – Support individual rights, but less so for unpopular minorities – Nostalgia for the old order and aspirations for a better future – Surveys suggest the citizens have little faith in the current political system – Putin
  • 23.
  • 24.
  • 25.
    RUSSIAN POLITICAL CULTUREIN THE POST- SOVIET PERIOD • Political socialization – Education • Ideological content has changed – Church – Mass media – Overall, much less subject to direct state control than it was in the Soviet era
  • 26.
    POLITICAL PARTICIPATION • Theimportance of social capital – Scare in Russia – Participation in civic activity has been extremely limited. – Weakness of intermediate associations – Since the late 1980s, political participation, apart from voting, has seen a brief, intense surge followed by a protracted ebb. – Not psychologically disengaged or socially isolated • Half the Russian population reports reading national newspapers regularly or sometimes and discussing problems of the country with friends. • Vote in high proportions • Prize the right not to participate – Shattering of expectations for change
  • 27.
  • 28.
  • 29.
    POLITICAL PARTICIPATION • Eliterecruitment – Refers to the institutional processes in a society by which people gain access to positions of influence and responsibility – Soviet regime: Communist Party, nomenklatura – Today, mixture of career types
  • 30.
    INTEREST ARTICULATION: BETWEEN STATISM AND PLURALISM • NGOs • Elements of corporatism • Three examples of associational groups – The Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs – The League of Committees of Soldiers’ Mothers – The Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia • New Sectors of Interest – Many new associations – More collective action by business and other sectors – More open bargaining over the details of policy
  • 31.
    PARTIES AND THEAGGREGATION OF INTERESTS • Elections and party development – The 1989 and 1990 elections – The 1993 and 1995 elections – The 1996 presidential election – The 1999 election – Putin and the 2000 presidential race – The 2003 and 2004 elections • Party strategies and the social bases of party support • Evolution of the party system – Hampered by institutional factors such as the powerful presidency – Sponsoring shadow leftist or nationalist parties to divide the opposition
  • 32.
    SEAT SHARES OFPARLIAMENTARY PARTIES
  • 33.
  • 34.
  • 35.
  • 36.
    SOCIAL BASES OFSUPPORT FOR PARTIES
  • 37.
  • 38.
    POLITICS OF ECONOMICREFORM (1) • Stabilization – Shock therapy • From communism to capitalism – Heavy commitment of resources to military production in the Soviet Union complicated the task of reform; so does the size of the country
  • 39.
    POLITICS OF ECONOMICREFORM (2) • Privatization – “Loans for shares” • Consequences of privatization – Unsustainable debt trap – No strong institutional framework to support it; no real market economy in place • Social conditions – Small minority became wealthy in the 1990s – Most people suffered a net decline – Unemployment
  • 40.
  • 41.
  • 42.
    RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (1) • Gorbachev’s goal: make the Soviet Union a law-governed state • The Procuracy – Comparable to the system of federal and state prosecuting attorneys in the United States – Has more wide-ranging responsibilities and is organized as a centralized hierarchy headed by the procurator-general
  • 43.
    RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (2) • The Judiciary – Bench has been relatively week – Lip service to judicial independence – Unitary hierarchy: all courts of general jurisdiction are federal courts – Commercial courts • Supreme Commercial Court is both the highest appellate court for its system of courts as well as the source of instruction and direction to lower commercial courts. • Judges nominated by the president and confirmed by the Federation Council – Ministry of Justice oversees the court system; lacks any direct authority over the procuracy
  • 44.
    RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (3) • The Bar – “Advocates” – Comparable to defense attorneys in the U.S. – Role has expanded considerably with the spread of the market economy • Constitutional Adjudication – Court established for constitutional review of the official acts of government – Again, challenge of presidential authority – Under Putin, the court has not issued any rulings restricting the president’s power.
  • 45.
    RULE ADJUDICATION: TOWARD THE RULE OF LAW (4) • Obstacles to the Rule of Law – Abuse of legal institutions by political authorities – Corruption • Bribery
  • 46.
    RUSSIA AND THEINTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY • Russia has not fully embraced integration into the international community. • Expanded military presence in several former Soviet republics • Chechnia • Post-communist transition has been difficult and incomplete.
  • 47.
  • 48.
    COUNTRY BIO: CHINA • Population: • Language: – 1,307.56 million – Standard Chinese or Mandarin • Territory: (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect) – 3,705,386 sq. miles – Yue (Cantonese) • Year of PRC Inauguration: – Wu (Shanghaiese) – 1949 – Minbei (Fuzhou) • Year of Current Constitution: – Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese) – 1982 – Xiang • Head of Party and State: – Hu Jintao – Gan • Head of Government: – Hakka dialects – Wen Jiabao – Minority languages • Religion: – Daoism (Taoism), Buddhist, Muslim 2-3% – Christian 1% (estimated) – Note: officially atheist
  • 49.
    BACKGROUND (1) • MaoZedong – 1949 Communist victory – Formally inaugurated the People’s Republic of China – Until his death in 1976, he was the chief architect and agitator for a project to lead an agrarian people to modernization, prosperity and communist utopia. – After his death • Successors rejected most of the revolutionary project; declaring it a failure essentially. • Launched new era of reform
  • 50.
    BACKGROUND • New economicpragmatism – Economic growth highest priority – Communist Party’s main assignment – Retreated from government’s direct administration of the economy • Superiority of capitalism • Socialist market economy – But have rejected political pluralism • Tolerates no challenge to the Communist Party’s monopoly on political power – Institutionalization in China • Promote more transparency, stability, and responsiveness • To encourage investment and innovation • Safeguard against arbitrary dictatorships and disruptive politics – Better crafted laws, new legality, more assertive representative assemblies, and popularly elected grassroots leaders
  • 51.
    CURRENT POLICY CHALLENGES • Political corruption, rural unrest, growing wealth gap, and severe pollution • Fostering economic growth and deliver a better material life for Chinese citizens – Economy has grown at a rate of nearly 10 percent per year since 1980 • Economic success has not been costless – Corruption – Rural reform • Land not privately owned, but contracted for agricultural use by Chinese farmers • Farmers poorly compensated – Growing wealth gap – Public disturbances • China has thoroughly abandoned the strictures of communist ideology; experienced an awesome economic revolution. – Opened up political processes to most diversified inputs – But have also firmly suppressed organized challenges to the Communist Party
  • 52.
    HISTORICAL SETTING • Confusianism – Conservative philosophy – Conceived of a society and the polity in terms of an ordered hierarchy of harmonious relationships • Imperial order to the Founding of the PRC • Nationalist Party • Chinese Communist Party • Mao Zedong • History of the PRC – Deng Xiaoping – Lean to One Side – Great Leap Forward – Retreat from the Leap – Cultural Revolution
  • 53.
    SOCIAL CONDITIONS • Huge population – World’s most populous country – Most live in the countryside, but now that is only 57% compared to 85% in 1980 – Rural industrialization and growth of towns – Rural collective industry is the most dynamic industrial sector • The population is concentrated in the eastern third of the land – Only ¼ of China’s land is arable – Land shortage/reduction in cultivated area – Land is used for property borders, burial grounds, and bigger houses. – So the problem of feeding the large population is expected to continue • China is a multiethnic state – 92 percent of Chinese are ethnically Han, but there are fifty-five recognized ethnic minorities, ranging in number from a few thousand to more than 16 million. – Tibet and Xinjiang (unrest)
  • 54.
    STRUCTURE OF THEPARTY STATE • Design Features – Guardianship • Describes the main relationship between the Communist Party and society • Representation of “historical best interests” • Mass line – Party Organization • Democratic centralism – Leninist principle • Refers mainly to consultation: opportunities for discussion, criticism, and proposals in party organizations – Two Hierarchies, with Party Leadership • Division of labor between party and government structures
  • 55.
    STRUCTURE OF THEPARTY STATE: GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES • National People’s Congress (NPC) – legislative • Elected for five-year terms by delegates in provincial-level congresses and the armed forces • Assemble once annually for a plenary session of about two weeks • Always large body • Formally has extensive powers: amendment of the constitution, passage and amendment of legislation, approval of economic plans,etc. • Is it a rubber-stamp assembly? Was during Maoist years, but now…. • It is still too large and meets too infrequently, but the lawmaking role of the less cumbersome NPC Standing Committee seems to be gaining.
  • 56.
  • 57.
    STRUCTURE OF THEPARTY STATE • State Council-executive functions • Composed the premier, who is head of government, and his cabinet of vice-premiers, state councillors, ministers, auditor general, and secretary general • Has its own Standing Committee, which meets twice weekly • As in most parliamentary systems, the bulk of legislation is drafted by specialized ministries and commissions under the direction of the cabinet • President- Head of State – purely ceremonial office • Communist Party Leadership – Judiciary: • Supreme People’s Court • Supreme People’s Procuratorate – Bridge between public security agencies and the courts
  • 58.
    STRUCTURE OF THEPARTY STATE • Party Structures – National Party Congress – Central Committee • Exercises the powers of the congress between sessions • Chinese political elites – Politburo • Politburo Standing Committee – Top Leader and the Succession Problem – Party Bureaucracy
  • 59.
  • 60.
  • 61.
    STRUCTURE OF THEPARTY STATE • People’s Liberation Army – Does not dictate policy to party leaders, but it is the self-appointed guardian of Chinese sovereignty and nationalism. – Preventing Taiwan’s independence • Party Dominance – Nomenklatura system • The most important mechanism by which the Communist Party exerts control over officials. – Party membership – Party Core Groups – Overlapping Directorships – Elite Recruitment • Rule by Law – Socialist Legality – Legal Reform – Criticism of Legal Practices
  • 62.
    POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION • MassMedia – Ordinary citizens now exposed to news and opinions about public affairs – Hong Kong • Relatively free and critical mass media – Chinese journalists expose government wrongdoings and thwart official efforts to suppress news of disasters. – Chinese leaders reserve the right to shut down publications that in their view go too far. – Internet: 50,000 cyber police; still difficult to monitor • Education System – Past: very ideological; persecution of scholars – Today: respect for expertise • Fall 2006 reduced the seven compulsory courses on political ideology and party history to four, in the first major curricular change in twenty-five years.
  • 63.
    POLITICAL CULTURE • Fromradicalism to “reform and opening” to the outside world • Political Knowledge – Not uniformly distributed in China – More active knowledge and interest found in men, the more highly educated, and Chinese with higher incomes. – Beijing • Here people discuss politics very frequently • Political Values – Reject every democratic value and support for democratic values generally low – Influence of non-Chinese political socialization is evident – Show an impact of socioeconomic development; urban Chinese are much more supportive of democratic values than are mainland Chinese generally
  • 64.
  • 65.
    POLITICAL PARTICIPATION • Changesin the Rules – Political participation: was required; now optional – Mao: mass mobilization campaign; contemporary leadership does not attempt to rouse the mass public to realize policy objectives – Rejection of mass mobilization as the dominant mode of political participation • Rather: express opinions and participate through regular, official channels – hotlines, letters to newspaper editors, etc. • Local Congress Elections • Village Committees • Unacceptable Political Participation • Protestors and Reformers – Democracy Movement – Tiananmen massacre of June 4, 1989
  • 66.
  • 67.
    INTEREST ARTICULATION ANDAGGREGATION • Organizations Under Party Leadership – Satellite parties – Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference – Important mass organizations • All-China Federation of Trade Unions • Women’s Federation – Mass organizations represent the interests of the Communist Party to the organized “interest groups” it dominates, not vice versa. • Transmission belts
  • 68.
    INTEREST ARTICULATION ANDAGGREGATION • NGOs – Nongovernmental organizations – Most active in environmental issues – Seek embeddedness – All-Chinese Women’s Federation: responsible for more than 3,000 social organizations dealing with women’s issues • GONGOs – Government-organized nongovernmental organizations – Front operations for government agencies – Set up to take advantage of the interest of foreign governments and international NGOs to support the emergence of Chinese civil society. – Most interesting: business associations set up to organize firms • The Self-Employed Laborers Association • The Private Enterprises Association • Federation of Industry and commerce
  • 69.
    POLICYMAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION • Policymaking – Three tiers in policymaking 1. Politburo and its Standing Committee 2. Leading small groups (LSGs) 3. Relevant party departments and government ministries – From agenda setting to implementing regulations • Five stages: agenda setting; inter-agency review; Politburo approval; NPC review, debate, and passage; and the drafting of implementing regulations • Two most important states: interagency review and drafting of implementing regulations • Policy implementation – Monitoring – Policy priorities – Adapting policy to local conditions • Corruption
  • 70.
  • 71.
    POLICY PERFORMANCE • EconomicGrowth – Success story; opening up to foreign trade and investment • Trade balances • Scarcity prices versus government controlled or two-track pricing system – Decentralization – Reform of SOEs • Environmental Degradation – Economic growth = serious environmental damage – Health and productivity costs – “first development, then environment” – EPBs local environmental protection bureaus – State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) • Underfunded
  • 72.
  • 73.
  • 74.
    POLICY PERFORMANCE • Population Control – Little regulation during Maoist years; 1978 population close to a billion – One-child family policy • State-sponsored family planning added to the constitution • Ideal family had one child • Most couples required to stop childbearing after one or two births • Married couples in urban areas restricted to one child • In rural areas, married couples are subject to rules that differ across provinces. In some, two children permitted. In others, only one child permitted; in most provinces, a second child is permitted only if the first is a girl. • Difficult to implement; many sons ideal: a married daughter joins the household of her husband, while a married son remains in the household to support aging parents. • Policy implementation – Carrots and sticks utilized to encourage one child policy • Perverse outcomes – Shortage of girls – Sex-selective abortions
  • 75.
  • 76.
    HONG KONG • 1842and 1860, the island of Hong Kong, and adjacent territory on the Chinese mainland, were ceded by treaty to the British in perpetuity. – Due to result of wars fought to impose trade on China – For nearly a century, China was a British colony. • 1984, the Chinese communist authorities elaborated the principle of “one country, two systems” applicable to Hong Kong after 1997 – Hong Kong reverted to Chinese sovereignty in 1997 but would continue to enjoy a “high degree of autonomy.” – Chinese authorities hope the outcome will woo Taiwan back to the PRC, too.
  • 77.
    TAIWAN • Governed bythe Nationalists as the Republic of China since 1945 – 100 miles off the east coast of the Chinese mainland. – Communist “liberation” of Taiwan – Korean war; American interests in the security of Taiwan • Two major events affected Taiwan’s status – Lost its membership in the U.N. and its seat on the Security Council to China in 1971 – U.S. recognized China diplomatically, downgrading the relationship with Taiwan to one of unofficial liaison • Today fewer than 30 countries recognize Taiwan. • Taiwan’s public does not support unification.
  • 78.
    CHINA’S POLITICAL FUTURE •Still primarily a communist state – Room for optimism? • The dramatic changes in the Chinese economy, polity, and society, are as much a by-product of reform as a direct product of reform policies. – Room for optimism? • Authoritarianism has not survived intact with economic modernization in many East Asian countries. • Prediction: The party will continue to transform China in the years to come and to transform itself in order to continue to rule.