Mitochondria are double-membrane organelles found in animal and plant cells that produce energy through oxidative phosphorylation. They contain their own DNA and are inherited maternally. A 1987 study traced human mitochondrial DNA back to a single female ancestor, termed mitochondrial Eve, who likely lived around 200,000 years ago in Africa. Mitochondria have a variety of functions including energy production, calcium regulation, hormone and blood cell component synthesis, and apoptosis. They originated through endosymbiosis when a bacterium was engulfed by a host cell and evolved to perform essential metabolic functions.
In this course, some general features of mitochondria have been described. In addition, new articles related to mitochondria have been discussed. you can also find some information about mitophagy and pharmaceutical approaches in order to cure fatal diseases such as cancer.
In this course, some general features of mitochondria have been described. In addition, new articles related to mitochondria have been discussed. you can also find some information about mitophagy and pharmaceutical approaches in order to cure fatal diseases such as cancer.
Molecular different between Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell By KK Sahu SirKAUSHAL SAHU
SYNOPSIS
Introduction to cell
Historical Aspects
Cell Diversity
Types Of Cell Diversity
Cell Diversity In Origin
Cell Diversity In size
Cell Diversity In Shape
Some Other Types
5) Differentiation And Specialisation Of Cell Diversity
6) Conclusion
7) References
Mitochondria are double membranous organelle, the inner membrane is more larger than the outer one. For this reason the inner membrane of the mitochondria folds inside forming a special figure called creasteae. The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) contains the subunits for oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). And this inner mitochondrial membrane coverd by a second membrane called the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). We called mitochondria as a power house of cell not only they generates ATP via oxidative phosphorylation they also take part in various biochemical pathways such as- pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis, heme biosynthesis, the regulation of N2 balance in urea cycle, gluconeogenesis, keton body production and fatty acid degradation and elongation. They also take part in cell signalling via regulating the protein-protein interaction or by regulating the cellular concentration of calcium ion(Ca2+) and reactive oxygen species(ROS).
During various biological diseasesmitochondrial morphology altered, as in the case when there is lack of nutrient in our body mitochondria combine together to share their nutrient and alo their DNA and ETC components to maintain their OXPHOS. But in case of high energy demand of a part of body mitochondria undergo division or called fission because they move rapidly than lager one (Zhao et al., 2013). Fission also occur in mitotic cell to share equal amount of mitochondria to the daughter cells. Many questions arise in mitochondrial dinamics but here I am going to answer a most doubtful question- Is mitochondrial dynamics play any role in tumorigenic process? Is any oncogenic signalling play crucial role in morphological alteration of mitochondria?
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level.
In broad sense, the study of gene structure and functions at the molecular level to understand the molecular basis of hereditary, genetic variation, and the expression patterns of genes.The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry.
Performance of condenser and effect of vacuum in 120MW thermal power plant.pp...ali13jf1a0321
the purpose of present project is to analyze the performance of condenser at 120MW thermal power plant and comparisons made with partial loads 116 MW and 110MW.
by ujjawal sharma
Introduction to semiconductor lasers, and its working. construction of semiconductor laser, Ga As laser, and construction, achievement of population inversion, pumping.
Molecular different between Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell By KK Sahu SirKAUSHAL SAHU
SYNOPSIS
Introduction to cell
Historical Aspects
Cell Diversity
Types Of Cell Diversity
Cell Diversity In Origin
Cell Diversity In size
Cell Diversity In Shape
Some Other Types
5) Differentiation And Specialisation Of Cell Diversity
6) Conclusion
7) References
Mitochondria are double membranous organelle, the inner membrane is more larger than the outer one. For this reason the inner membrane of the mitochondria folds inside forming a special figure called creasteae. The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) contains the subunits for oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). And this inner mitochondrial membrane coverd by a second membrane called the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). We called mitochondria as a power house of cell not only they generates ATP via oxidative phosphorylation they also take part in various biochemical pathways such as- pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis, heme biosynthesis, the regulation of N2 balance in urea cycle, gluconeogenesis, keton body production and fatty acid degradation and elongation. They also take part in cell signalling via regulating the protein-protein interaction or by regulating the cellular concentration of calcium ion(Ca2+) and reactive oxygen species(ROS).
During various biological diseasesmitochondrial morphology altered, as in the case when there is lack of nutrient in our body mitochondria combine together to share their nutrient and alo their DNA and ETC components to maintain their OXPHOS. But in case of high energy demand of a part of body mitochondria undergo division or called fission because they move rapidly than lager one (Zhao et al., 2013). Fission also occur in mitotic cell to share equal amount of mitochondria to the daughter cells. Many questions arise in mitochondrial dinamics but here I am going to answer a most doubtful question- Is mitochondrial dynamics play any role in tumorigenic process? Is any oncogenic signalling play crucial role in morphological alteration of mitochondria?
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level.
In broad sense, the study of gene structure and functions at the molecular level to understand the molecular basis of hereditary, genetic variation, and the expression patterns of genes.The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry.
Performance of condenser and effect of vacuum in 120MW thermal power plant.pp...ali13jf1a0321
the purpose of present project is to analyze the performance of condenser at 120MW thermal power plant and comparisons made with partial loads 116 MW and 110MW.
by ujjawal sharma
Introduction to semiconductor lasers, and its working. construction of semiconductor laser, Ga As laser, and construction, achievement of population inversion, pumping.
A prelude to genetics of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
the theory provides an explanation for the presence and source of organellar genome in eukaryotic cell
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique, and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mitos, and granule, chondros.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
The 1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mites, and granule, condos.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
Although majority of DNA in most eukaryotes is found in the nucleus,some DNA is present within the mitochondria also. Here, I have included the basics and importance of the Organelle/ Mitochondrial DNA which can help you in better understanding of the same.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
1. PHY 301A
Nakul Surana Submitted to –
13418 Prof. K P Rajeev
SHORT STUDY POJECT
Mitochondria – Its’ Structure, history and Function
2. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are well-defined cytoplasmic organelles of the cell which take part in a variety
of cellular metabolic functions. Survival of the cells requires energy to perform different
functions. The mitochondria are important as the fact that these organelles supply all the
necessary biological energy of the cell, and they obtain this energy by oxidizing the substrates
of the Krebs cycle.
When and How Often Did Mitochondria Arise?
The oldest undisputedly eukaryotic microfossils go back 1.45 billion years in the fossil record.
Given the coincidence of mitochondria with the eukaryotic state, this can also be seen as a
minimum age for mitochondria and a rough best-guess starting date for eukaryotic evolution
It is hardly surprising that many independent eukaryotic lineages have preserved anaerobic
energy-producing pathways in their mitochondria
History
There are currently two main, competing theories about the origin of mitochondria. They
differ with regard to their assumptions concerning the nature of the host and the
physiological capabilities of the mitochondrial endosymbiont.
The traditional view posits that the host that acquired the mitochondrion was an anaerobic
nucleus-bearing cell, a full-fledged eukaryote that was able to engulf the mitochondrion
actively via phagocytosis.
Initial benefit of the symbiosis might have been the endosymbiont's ability to detoxify oxygen
for the anaerobe host.
Because this theory presumes the host to have been a eukaryote already, it does not directly
account for the ubiquity of mitochondria.
The oxygen detoxification aspect is problematic, because the forms of oxygen that are toxic
to anaerobes are reactive oxygen species (ROS) like the superoxide radical, O2
-.
In that sense, mitochondria do not solve the ROS problem but rather create it; hence,
protection from O2 is an unlikely symbiotic benefit. This traditional view also does not directly
account for anaerobic mitochondria.
An alternative theory posits that the host that acquired the mitochondrion was aprokaryote,
an archaebacterial outright. This view is linked to the idea that the ancestral mitochondrion
was a metabolically versatile, facultative anaerobe (able to live with or without oxygen)
The initial benefit of the symbiosis could have been the production of H2 by the
endosymbiont as a source of energy and electrons for the archaebacterial host, which is
posited to have been H2 dependent. This kind of physiological interaction (H2 transfer or
anaerobic syntrophic) is commonly observed in modern microbial communities.
3. Structure of Mitochondria
Mitochondria are rod shaped structure found in both animal and plant cells. It is a double
membrane bound organelle. It has the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The
membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins.
The components of mitochondria are as follows:
Outer membrane
It is smooth and is composed of equal amounts of phospholipids and proteins.
It has a large number of special proteins known as the porins.
The porins are integral membrane proteins and they allow the movement of molecules
that are of 5000 daltons or less in weight to pass through it.
The outer membrane is freely permeable to nutrient molecules,ions, energy molecules
like the ATP and ADP molecules.
Inner membrane
The inner membrane of mitochondria is more complex in structure.
It is folded into a number of folds many times and is known as the cristae.
This folding help to increase the surface ares inside the organelle.
The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aids in the production of ATP
molecules.
Various chemical reactions takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane is strictly permeable, it is permeable
only to oxygen, ATP and it also helps in regulating transfer of metabolites across the
membrane.
Intermembrane space
It is the space between the outer and inner membrane of the mitochondria, it has the
same composition as that of the cell's cytoplasm.
There is a difference in the protein content in the intermembrane space.
Matrix
The matrix of the mitochondria is a complex mixture of proteins and enzymes. These
enzymes are important for the synthesis of ATP molecules, mitochondrial ribosomes,
tRNAs and mitochondrial DNA.
Functions
Functions of mitochondria depends on the cell type in which they are present.
The most important function of the mitochondria is to produce energy. The simpler
molecules of nutrition are sent to the mitochondria to be processed and to produce
4. charged molecules. These charged molecules combine with oxygen and produce ATP
molecules. This process is known as oxidative phosphorylation.
Mitochondria help the cells to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within
the compartments of the cell.
The mitochondria also help in building certain parts of blood and hormones like
testosterone and estrogen.
The liver cells mitochondria have enzymes that detoxify ammonia.
The mitochondria also play important role in the process of apoptosis or programmed
cell death. Abnormal death of cells due to the dysfunction of mitochondria can affect
the function of organ.
Energy Production
This occurs by a process of cellular respiration, also known as aerobic respiration, which is
dependent on the presence of oxygen. (When oxygen is limited, the chemicals that would
otherwise be oxidized are, instead, metabolized by anaerobic respiration, via a process that is
independent of the mitochondria.)
The 3 main stages in the overall process of
aerobic cellular respiration are:
1. Glycolysis- splitting sugar molecules
2. TCA Cycle
3. Electron Transport
mtRNA
Mitochondria contain their own genetic material - which is independent of the cell in which
they are located.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is maternally inherited. At fertilization only nuclear DNA enters
from the sperm because although the egg contains mitochondria, sperm cells do not. Sperm
are so tiny that mitochondria would hamper their passage toward the egg. (Therefore exercise
capacity e.g. for endurance sports tends to be maternally inherited. Maternal ancestral history
can also be traced via mtDNA.)
mtDNA accounts for about 1% of the total cellular DNA
5. Mitochondrial Eve
In 1987, A worldwide survey of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was published by Cann,
Stoneking, and Wilson in Nature magazine. Its main point was that "all mitochondrial DNAs
stem from one woman" and that she probably lived around 200,000 years ago in Africa.
This mitochondrial DNA, however, does not seem to come from both parents. Instead, it
comes only from the mother and not from the Father (There seems to be some rare
exceptions to the rule that only the mother contributes the mitochondrial DNA
Initially, it was thought that for humans, most of the sperm remained outside of the egg. Only
the head with the nuclear DNA and the centrosome, were thought to enter the egg. But that
view has changed. Now it has been determined that the whole sperm enters the egg.
However, virtually all of the sperm is broken down by enzymes. Only the chromosomes found
in the head of the sperm in crystalline form are preserved and used in the recombination
process to produce the final version of the new egg cell DNA. The sperm mitochondria and its
DNA are broken down by enzymes made for that purpose. However, the end result is still the
same. The mitochondria and its DNA from the sperm are not used. Only the mitochondria
from the egg are used for the newly developing person
So, our mitochondrial DNA is essentially identical to that of our mother. Mitochondrial DNA is
transfered from mother to daughter, generation after generation. The mitochondrial DNA in
the son, which he got from his mother, is a dead end street, since his mitochondrial DNA will
not be used in his children.
Nuclear DNA changes a lot since it undergoes recombination in every generation. However,
the mitochondrial DNA gets transfered from generation to generation without any
recombination. Only the normal mutation rate that occurs when DNA is replicated allows the
mitochondrial DNA to change. This is why the world wide survey was able to determine that
all people are related via some original mother which they called the "mitochondrial Eve".
They produced ancestral trees that depended on the slow mutation rate of mitochondrial DNA
to estimate how the whole human population came from a single woman.
Methodology
- The mitochondrial data was determined using restriction analysis
- They used African Americans rather than Africans from Africa to represent native Africans in
their study.
- They used a program called PAUP to build a phylogenetic tree.