This document provides an overview of parametric and non-parametric statistical tests. Parametric tests assume the data follows a known distribution (e.g. normal) while non-parametric tests make no assumptions. Common non-parametric tests covered include chi-square, sign, Mann-Whitney U, and Spearman's rank correlation. The chi-square test is described in more detail, including how to calculate chi-square values, degrees of freedom, and testing for independence and goodness of fit.
when you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it but when you cannot measure, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of meagre and unsatisfactory kind.”
Parametric vs Nonparametric Tests: When to use whichGönenç Dalgıç
There are several statistical tests which can be categorized as parametric and nonparametric. This presentation will help the readers to identify which type of tests can be appropriate regarding particular data features.
In Hypothesis testing parametric test is very important. in this ppt you can understand all types of parametric test with assumptions which covers Types of parametric, Z-test, T-test, ANOVA, F-test, Chi-Square test, Meaning of parametric, Fisher, one-sample z-test, Two-sample z-test, Analysis of Variance, two-way ANOVA.
Subscribe to Vision Academy for Video assistance
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjzpit_cXjdnzER_165mIiw
Statistical tests of significance and Student`s T-TestVasundhraKakkar
Statistical tests of significance is explained along with steps involve in Statistical tests of significance and types of significance test are also mentioned. Student`s T-Test is explained
Non-parametric Statistical tests for Hypotheses testingSundar B N
A complete guidelines for Non-parametric Statistical tests for Hypotheses testing with relevant examples which covers Meaning of non-parametric test, Types of non-parametric test, Sign test, Rank sum test, Chi-square test, Wilcoxon signed-ranks test, Mc Nemer test, Spearman’s rank correlation, statistics,
Subscribe to Vision Academy for Video assistance
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjzpit_cXjdnzER_165mIiw
this ppt gives you adequate information about Karl Pearsonscoefficient correlation and its calculation. its the widely used to calculate a relationship between two variables. The correlation shows a specific value of the degree of a linear relationship between the X and Y variables. it is also called as The Karl Pearson‘s product-moment correlation coefficient. the value of r is alwys lies between -1 to +1. + 0.1 shows Lower degree of +ve correlation, +0.8 shows Higher degree of +ve correlation.-0.1 shows Lower degree of -ve correlation. -0.8 shows Higher degree of -ve correlation.
Through this ppt you could learn what is Wilcoxon Signed Ranked Test. This will teach you the condition and criteria where it can be run and the way to use the test.
when you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it but when you cannot measure, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of meagre and unsatisfactory kind.”
Parametric vs Nonparametric Tests: When to use whichGönenç Dalgıç
There are several statistical tests which can be categorized as parametric and nonparametric. This presentation will help the readers to identify which type of tests can be appropriate regarding particular data features.
In Hypothesis testing parametric test is very important. in this ppt you can understand all types of parametric test with assumptions which covers Types of parametric, Z-test, T-test, ANOVA, F-test, Chi-Square test, Meaning of parametric, Fisher, one-sample z-test, Two-sample z-test, Analysis of Variance, two-way ANOVA.
Subscribe to Vision Academy for Video assistance
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjzpit_cXjdnzER_165mIiw
Statistical tests of significance and Student`s T-TestVasundhraKakkar
Statistical tests of significance is explained along with steps involve in Statistical tests of significance and types of significance test are also mentioned. Student`s T-Test is explained
Non-parametric Statistical tests for Hypotheses testingSundar B N
A complete guidelines for Non-parametric Statistical tests for Hypotheses testing with relevant examples which covers Meaning of non-parametric test, Types of non-parametric test, Sign test, Rank sum test, Chi-square test, Wilcoxon signed-ranks test, Mc Nemer test, Spearman’s rank correlation, statistics,
Subscribe to Vision Academy for Video assistance
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCjzpit_cXjdnzER_165mIiw
this ppt gives you adequate information about Karl Pearsonscoefficient correlation and its calculation. its the widely used to calculate a relationship between two variables. The correlation shows a specific value of the degree of a linear relationship between the X and Y variables. it is also called as The Karl Pearson‘s product-moment correlation coefficient. the value of r is alwys lies between -1 to +1. + 0.1 shows Lower degree of +ve correlation, +0.8 shows Higher degree of +ve correlation.-0.1 shows Lower degree of -ve correlation. -0.8 shows Higher degree of -ve correlation.
Through this ppt you could learn what is Wilcoxon Signed Ranked Test. This will teach you the condition and criteria where it can be run and the way to use the test.
The ppt cover General Introduction to the topic,
Description of CHI-SQUARE TEST, Contingency table, Degree of Freedom, Determination of Chi – square test, Assumption for validity of chi - square test, Characteristics , Applications, Limitations
Chapter 11 Chi-Square Tests and ANOVA 359 Chapter .docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 11: Chi-Square Tests and ANOVA
359
Chapter 11: Chi-Square and ANOVA Tests
This chapter presents material on three more hypothesis tests. One is used to determine
significant relationship between two qualitative variables, the second is used to determine
if the sample data has a particular distribution, and the last is used to determine
significant relationships between means of 3 or more samples.
Section 11.1: Chi-Square Test for Independence
Remember, qualitative data is where you collect data on individuals that are categories or
names. Then you would count how many of the individuals had particular qualities. An
example is that there is a theory that there is a relationship between breastfeeding and
autism. To determine if there is a relationship, researchers could collect the time period
that a mother breastfed her child and if that child was diagnosed with autism. Then you
would have a table containing this information. Now you want to know if each cell is
independent of each other cell. Remember, independence says that one event does not
affect another event. Here it means that having autism is independent of being breastfed.
What you really want is to see if they are not independent. In other words, does one
affect the other? If you were to do a hypothesis test, this is your alternative hypothesis
and the null hypothesis is that they are independent. There is a hypothesis test for this
and it is called the Chi-Square Test for Independence. Technically it should be called
the Chi-Square Test for Dependence, but for historical reasons it is known as the test for
independence. Just as with previous hypothesis tests, all the steps are the same except for
the assumptions and the test statistic.
Hypothesis Test for Chi-Square Test
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses and the level of significance
Ho : the two variables are independent (this means that the one variable is not
affected by the other)
HA : the two variables are dependent (this means that the one variable is affected
by the other)
Also, state your α level here.
2. State and check the assumptions for the hypothesis test
a. A random sample is taken.
b. Expected frequencies for each cell are greater than or equal to 5 (The expected
frequencies, E, will be calculated later, and this assumption means E ≥ 5 ).
3. Find the test statistic and p-value
Finding the test statistic involves several steps. First the data is collected and
counted, and then it is organized into a table (in a table each entry is called a cell).
These values are known as the observed frequencies, which the symbol for an
observed frequency is O. Each table is made up of rows and columns. Then each
row is totaled to give a row total and each column is totaled to give a column
total.
Chapter 11: Chi-Squared Tests and ANOVA
360
The null hypothesis is that the variables are independent. Using the multiplication.
Definition of ethics, Ethics and counselling,
Professional codes of ethics and standards,
the Development of Code of Ethics of
Counsellors, Ethical counselling
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Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
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Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
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Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
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As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
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The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
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In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
1. SEMINAR ON RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
NON-PARAMETIC TESTS,
CORRELATION & REGRESSION
ANALYSES
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES
&
FACTOR ANALYSES
2. PARAMETRE
Parameter is any numerical quantity that
characterize a given population or some
aspects of it. Most common statistics
parameters are mean, median, mode,
standard deviation.
3. PARAMETRIC TEST
The test in which, the population constants like
mean, SD, standard error, correlation coefficient,
proportion etc. and data tend to follow one
assumed or established distribution such as
normal, binomial, poisson etc.
4. ASSUMPTIONS OF PARAMETRIC TESTS
The general assumptions of parametric tests
are
o The populations are normally distributed
(follow normal distribution curve)
o The selective population is representative of
general population
o The data is in interval or ratio scale
5. NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
The test in which no constant of a population is
used. Data do not follow any specific distribution
and no assumption are made in these tests.
Eg: to classify good, better and best we just
allocate arbitrary numbers or marks to each
category.
6. ASSUMPTIONS OF NON-PARAMETRIC
TESTS
Non-parametric tests can applied when:
o Data don’t follow any specific
distribution and no assumption about the
population are made
o Data measured on any scale
7. TESTING NORMALITY
Normality : This assumption is only broken if
there are large and obvious departure from
normality
This can be checked by
1. Inspecting a histogram
2. Skewness and Kurtosis
8. COMMONLY USED
NON-PARAMERTIC TETS
Chi-Square test
McNemar test
The Sign Test
Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test
Mann-Whitney U or Wilcoxon rank sum test
The Kruskal Wallis or H test
Friedman ANOVA
The Spearman rank correlation test
Cochran’s Q test
9. Chi-square test offers an alternate method of
testing the significance of difference between two
proportions
Chi-square test involves the calculation of chi-
square.
Chi-square is derived from the greek letter ‘chi’
(𝒳)
CHI-SQUARE TEST
10. CON…
Chi-square was developed by Karl pearson.
Chi-square test is a non-parametric test.
It follows a specific distribution known as Chi-
square distribution.
11. CON…
The three essential requirements for Chi-square
test are:
A random sample
Qualitative data
Lowest expected frequency not less than 5
12. Important Terms
Degree of freedom
It denotes the extend of independence (freedom)
enjoyed by a given set of observed frequencies
Suppose we are given a set of “n” observed
frequencies which are subjected to “k”
independent constrains(restriction) then,
13. d.f. = (no. of frequencies)-(no. of
independent constrains on them)
In other terms,
d.f.= (r-1)(c-1)
Where
r = the no. of rows
c = the no. of columns
14. Contingency Table
When the table is prepared by
enumeration of qualitative data by
entering the actual frequencies, and if
that table represents occurrence of
two sets of events, it is also called an
association table.
15. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A
CHI-SQUARE TEST
It is based on frequencies and not on the
parameters like mean and SD.
The test is used for testing the hypothesis and is
not useful for estimation
It can also be applied to a complex contingency
table with several classes and such as is a very
useful test in research work.
16. CON…
No rigid assumptions are necessary in regard to
the type of population, no need of parameter
values and relatively less mathematical details are
involved.
17. CHI SQUARE DISTRIBUTION
If 𝑋1,𝑋2,…𝑋 𝑛 are independent normal variants
and each is distributed normally with mean zero
and SD unity, then𝑋1
2
,𝑋2
2,…… 𝑋2
𝑛 = ∑𝑋𝑖
2
is
distributed as chi square (𝒳2
)with n degrees of
freedom (d.f.) where n is large.
19. CALCULATION OF CHI-SQUARE VALUE
The calculation of Chi-square value is as follows:
Make the contingency tables
Note the frequencies observed (O) in each class
of one event, row-wise and the number in each
group of the other event, column-wise.
Determine the expected number (E) in each group
of the sample or the cell of table on the
assumption of null hypothesis.
20. CON…
The hypothesis that there was no difference
between the effect of the two frequencies, and
then proceed to test the hypothesis in quantitative
terms is called the Null hypothesis.
Find the difference between the observed and the
expected frequencies in each cell (O – E).
Calculate the Chi-square values by the formula
Sum up the Chi-square values of all the cells to
get the total Chi-square value.
21. CON…
Calculate the degrees of freedom which are
related to the number of categories in both the
events.
The formula adopted in case of contingency table
is Degrees of freedom
(d.f.) = (c – 1 ) (r – 1)
Where c is the number of columns and r is the
number of rows
22. ALTERNATIVE FORMULA
In the case of (2×2) table.
If we write the cell frequencies and marginal total
in case of a (2×2) table thus,
a b (a+b)
c d (c+d)
(a+c) (b+d) N
23. APPLICATIONS OFA CHI SQUARE TEST
This test can be used in
Goodness of fit of distributions
test of independence of attributes
test of homogeneity.
24. TEST OF GOODNESS OF FIT OF
DISTRIBUTIONS:
This test enables us to see how well does the
assumed theoretical distribution (such as
Binomial distribution, Poisson distribution or
Normal distribution) fit to the observed data.
The Chi Square test formula for goodness of fit
is:
𝑋2
= ∑
𝑜−𝑒 2
𝑒
Where, o = observed frequency
e = expected frequency
25. CON…
If chi square (calculated) > chi square (tabulated),
with (n-1) d.f, then null hypothesis is rejected
otherwise accepted.
And if null hypothesis is accepted, then it can be
concluded that the given distribution follows
theoretical distribution.
26. TEST OF INDEPENDENCE OF ATTRIBUTES
Test enables us to explain whether or not two
attributes are associated.
For instance, we may be interested in knowing
whether a new medicine is effective in controlling
fever or not, chi square test is useful.
In such a situation, we proceed with the null
hypothesis that the two attributes (viz., new
medicine and control of fever) are independent
which means that new medicine is not effective in
controlling fever.
27. CON…
𝒳2
(calculated) >𝒳2
(tabulated) at a certain level
of significance for given degrees of freedom, the
null hypothesis is rejected,
i.e. two variables are dependent.(i.e., the new
medicine is effective in controlling the fever)
28. CON…
if, 𝒳2
(calculated) <𝒳2
(tabulated) ,the null
hypothesis is accepted,
i.e. 2 variables are independent.(i.e., the new
medicine is not effective in controlling the fever).
when null hypothesis is rejected, it can be
concluded that there isa significant association
between two attributes.
29. TEST OF HOMOGENITY
This test can also be used to test whether the
occurance of events follow uniformity or not e.g. the
admission of patients in government hospital in all
days of week is uniform or not can be tested with the
help of chi square test
𝒳2
(calculated) <𝒳2
(tabulated), then null hypothesis
is accepted, and it can be concluded that there is a
uniformity in the occurance of the events. (uniformity
in the admission of patients through out the week)
30. CONDITIONS FOR THE APPLICATION OF CHI
SQUARE TEST
The data must be in the form of frequencies
The frequency data must have a precise
numerical value and must be organised into
categories or groups.
Observations recorded and used are collected on
a random basis.
All the items in the sample must be independent.
31. CON…
No group should contain very few items, say less
than 10. In case where the frequencies are less
than 10, regrouping is done by combining the
frequencies of adjoining groups so that the new
frequencies become greater than 10. (Some
statisticians take this number as 5, but 10 is
regarded as better by most of the statisticians.)
The overall number of items must also be
reasonably large. It should normally be at least
50.
32. YATE’S CORRECTION
If in the 2×2 contingency table, the expected
frequencies are small say less than 5, then chi
square test can’t be used. In that case, the direct
formula of the chi square test is modified and
given by Yate’s correction for continuity
33. ADDITIVE PROPERTY
Several values of 𝒳2
can be added together and if
the degrees of freedom are also added, this
number gives the d.f of the total value of 𝒳2
.
Thus if a number of 𝒳2
value is obtained from a
number of samples of similar data, then because
of the additive nature of 𝒳2
we can combine the
various values of 𝒳2
by just simply adding them.
34. Such addition of various values of 𝒳2
gives one
value of 𝒳2
which helps in forming a better idea
about the significance of the problem under
consideration.
Eg: The table shows the value of 𝒳2
from
different investigations carried to examine the
effectiveness of a recent invented medicine for
checking malaria.
35.
36. By adding all the values of 𝒳2
, we obtain a value
equal to 18.0
Adding the various d.f as given in the table, we
obtain the value 5
Now we can state that the 𝒳2
value for 5 d.f is
18.0
37. Let as take the hypothesis that, the new medicine
is not effective.
The table value of 𝒳2
for 5 d.f at 5% level of
significance is 11.071.
38.
39. Our calculated value is higher than this table
value ,means the difference is significant and is
not due to chance.
As such the hypothesis is rejected.
40. CONVERSION OF CHI-SQUARE INTO PHI
COEFFICIENT
Chi-square tells about the significance of a
relation between variables.
It provides no answer regarding the magnitude of
the relation.
In this case we use phi coefficient, which is a
non-parametric measure of coefficient of
correlation, as under:
ϕ=
𝒳2
𝑁
41. CONVERSION OF CHI-SQUARE INTO
COEFFICIENT OF CONTINGENCY (C)
In case of a contingency table of higher order
than 2×2 table to study the magnitude of the
relation or the degree of association between two
attributes, we convert the chi-square into
coefficient of contingency.
C =
𝒳2
𝒳2+𝑁
42. CON…
While finding out the value of C we proceed on
the assumption of null hypothesis that the two
attributes are independent and exhibit no
association.
It is also known as coefficient of Mean Square
contingency
This measure comes under the category of non-
parametric measure of relationship.
43. CAUTION IN USING 𝓧 𝟐
TEST
Neglect of frequencies of non-occurrence
Failure to equilise the sum of observed and the
sum of the expected frequencies
Wrong determination of the degrees of freedom
Wrong computations
44. LIMITATIONS OF A CHI SQUARE TEST
The data is from a random sample.
This test applied in a four fould table, will not give a
reliable result with one degree of freedom if the
expected value in any cell is less than 5. in such case,
Yate’s correction is necessry. i.e. reduction of the
mode of (o – e) by half.
Even if Yate’s correction, the test may be misleading
if any expected frequency is much below 5. in that
case another appropriate test should be applied.
45. CON…
In contingency tables larger than 2×2, Yate’s
correction cannot be applied.
This test doesn’t indicate the cause and effect, it
only tells the probability of occurance of
association by chance.
This test tells the presence or absence of an
association between the events but doesn’t
measure the strength of association.
46. CON…
The test is to be applied only when the individual
observations of sample are independent which
means that the occurrence of one individual
observation (event) has no effect upon the
occurrence of any other observation (event) in the
sample under consideration.