This document discusses operant conditioning and its major concepts. It describes the four methods used in operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and response cost. These are determined by whether a stimulus is added or removed and if it increases or decreases a behavior. Schedules of reinforcement - continuous, fixed interval/ratio, variable interval/ratio - are also explained and how they impact response patterns. Examples of applying these concepts in a classroom are provided.

1. Operant Conditioning
Compare and contrast the four methods used to
modify behavior in operant conditioning (positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment, and response cost), giving original
examples of how each can be used in the
classroom. Include in your answer a discussion of
the four schedules of reinforcement, describing
the likely response pattern associated with each.
Give original examples of how each can be used in
the classroom.

2. Operant Conditioning
The major theorists for the development of
operant conditioning are:
• Edward Thorndike
• John Watson
• B.F. Skinner

3. Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning investigates the influence
of consequences on subsequent behavior.
• Operant conditioning investigates the learning
of voluntary responses.
• It was the dominant school in American
psychology from the 1930s through the 1950s.

4. Operant Conditioning
• Where classical conditioning illustrates S-->R
learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as
R-->S learning
• It is the consequence that follows the response
that influences whether the response is likely or
unlikely to occur again.

5. Operant Conditioning
• The three-term model of operant conditioning
(S--> R -->S) incorporates the concept that
responses cannot occur without an
environmental event (e.g., an antecedent
stimulus) preceding it.
• While the antecedent stimulus in operant
conditioning does not ELICIT or CAUSE the
response (as it does in classical conditioning), it
can influence its occurance.

6. Operant Conditioning
• When the antecedent does influence the
likelihood of a response occurring, it is
technically called a discriminative stimulus.
• It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary
response (i.e., the response's consequence) that
changes the probability of whether the
response is likely or unlikely to occur again.

7. Operant Conditioning
• There are two types of consequences:
– positive (sometimes called pleasant)
– negative (sometimes called aversive)

8. Operant Conditioning
• Two actions can be taken with these stimuli:
– they can be ADDED to the learner’s
environment.
– they can be SUBRACTED from the learner’s
environment.
• If adding or subtracting the stimulus results in
a change in the probability that the response will
occur again, the stimulus is considered a
CONSEQUENCE.
• Otherwise the stimulus is considered a
NEUTRAL stimulus.

9. Operant Conditioning
• There are 4 major techniques or methods used
in operant conditioning.
• They result from combining:
– the two major purposes of operant
conditioning (increasing or decreasing the
probability that a specific behavior will occur
in the future),
– the types of stimuli used (positive/pleasant
or negative/aversive), and
– the action taken (adding or removing the
stimulus).

10. Operant Conditioning
Outcomes of Conditioning
Increase
Behavior
Decrease
Behavior
Stimulus
Positive/
pleasant
Negative/
Aversive
Add
Positive
Reinforcement
Subtract
Response Cost
Subtract
Negative
Reinforcement
Add
Punishment

11. Schedules of consequences
Stimuli are presented in the environment
according to a schedule of which there are two
basic categories:
• Continuous
• Intermittent

12. Schedules of consequences
Continuous reinforcement simply means that
the behavior is followed by a consequence each
time it occurs.
• Excellent for getting a new behavior
started.
• Behavior stops quickly when reinforcement
stops.
• Is the schedule of choice for punishment
and response cost.

13. Schedules of consequences
Intermittent schedules are based either on the
• passage of time
OR
• number of correct responses

14. Schedules of consequences
The consequence can be delivered based on
• a fixed amount of time or number of
correct responses
OR
• a slightly different amount of time or
number of responses that vary around a
particular number

15. Schedules of consequences
This results in an four classes of intermittent
schedules.
Fixed Interval
• The first correct response after a set amount of
time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is
delivered).
• The time period required is always the same.
• Example: Spelling test every Friday.

16. Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for fixed interval schedule

17. Schedules of consequences
Variable Interval
• The first correct response after a set amount of
time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is
delivered).
• After the reinforcement, a new time period
(shorter or longer) is set with the average equaling
a specific number over a sum total of trials.
• Example: Pop quiz

18. Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for variable interval schedule

19. Schedules of consequences
Fixed Ratio
• A reinforcer is given after a specified number of
correct responses. This schedule is best for
learning a new behavior.
• The number of correct responses required for
reinforcement remains the same.
• Example: Ten math problems for homework

20. Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for fixed ratio schedule

21. Schedules of consequences
Variable Ratio
•A reinforcer is given after a set number of correct
responses.
• After reinforcement the number of correct
responses necessary for reinforcement changes.
This schedule is best for maintaining behavior.
• Example: A student raises his hand to be
called on.

22. Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for variable ratio schedule

23. Premack Principle
• The Premack Principle, often called "grandma's
rule," states that a high-frequency activity can be
used to reinforce low-frequency behavior.
• Access to the preferred activity is contingent on
completing the low-frequency, non-preferred
behavior.

24. Premack Principle
• The high frequency behavior to use as a
reinforcer can be determined by:
1. Asking students what they would like to do.
2. Observing students during free time.
3. Knowledge of interests of a particular age
group.

25. Rules In Analyzing Examples
• The following questions can help in determining
whether operant conditioning has occurred.
a. What behavior in the example was increased
or decreased?
b. Was the behavior
– increased (if yes, the process has the be
either positive or negative reinforcement),
OR
– decreased (if the behavior was decreased
the process is either response cost or
punishment).

26. Rules In Analyzing Examples
• The following questions can help in determining
whether operant conditioning has occurred.
c. What was the consequence / stimulus that
followed the behavior in the example?
d. Was the consequence (stimulus) added or
removed?
– If added, the process was either
positive reinforcement or punishment.
– If it was subtracted, the process was either
negative reinforcement or response cost.

27. Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to
his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of
cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three
weeks.
a. What behavior was changed?
Camping out

28. Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to
his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of
cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three
weeks.
b. Was the behavior strengthened or
weakened?
Weakened (Behavior decreased)
Eliminate positive and negative
reinforcement

29. Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to
his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of
cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three
weeks.
Having water thrown on him.
c. What was the consequence?
d. Was the behavior consequence added or
subtracted?
Added

30. Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-
out on every Friday during the month of June. The
last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to
his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of
cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three
weeks.
Since a consequence was ADDED and the
behavior was WEAKENED (REDUCED),
the process was PUNISHMENT.

31. Analyzing An Example
Additional examples are provided in the web
materials.
An excellent web-based presentation on positive
reinforcement is provided at:
http://server.bmod.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm