The document discusses nucleic acids, specifically DNA and RNA. It covers their structure, occurrence, and functions. Nucleic acids were first isolated in 1869 and are found in all living organisms. They are composed of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. DNA and RNA have primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures that allow them to store and transfer genetic information through processes like transcription and translation. Their main functions are to encode genetic instructions and direct the production of proteins in cells.
A brief introduction to human genetics. Relevant to medical students i.e biochem, anatomy and physiology students.
It might be very short but it is also helpful.
What are nucleic acidsWhy are these molecules so important to liv.pdfdeepakarora871
What are nucleic acids?
Why are these molecules so important to living organisms?
What are the basic structures of DNA and RNA? How are they similar? How are they different?
Solution
1.
Nucleic acids are the biopolymers or the molecules that allow the transfer of genetic material
from one generation to another generation.
These large biomolecules are necessary to all known forms of life.
The nucleic acids consists of nucleotides monomers linked together. Nucleotides consists of
nitrogenous base, five carbon sugar, phosphate group.
Nucleotides are linked together to form polynucleotide chains.
These are linked by a covalent bond and the linkage is between the phosphate and sugar
molecule and the linkage is called the phosphodiester linkage.
They are two types of nucleic acids they are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid ) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid ).
Phosphodiester linkage forms the phosphate sugar backbone of both DNA and RNA.
2. DNA contains the instructions for the performance of all cell functions.
DNA is a genetic material and it is organized into the chromosome and it is found in the nucleus
of the cell and it is copied from one generation to another generation.
RNA is essential for synthesis of proteins . The information contained within the genetic code is
passed from DNA to RNA and they results in the formation of proteins.
3. DNA is a double helical structure and it consists of purines and pyramidines which are four
nitrogen bases like adenine, guanine , cytosine and thymine and phosphate -deoxyribose sugar
backbone.
In a double stranded DNA adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.
RNA is a single stranded molecule . It consists of phosphate ribose sugar backbone and the
nitrogenous bases like adenine ,guanine ,cytosine and uracil.
In RNA strand, adenine pairs with uracil and guanine pairs with cytosine. The nitrogen bases get
bonded to each other by hydrogen bonds.
The DNA and RNA are similar in having three nitrogenous bases like adenine, guanine and
cytosine and they are also similar in phosphate group.
They are different in nitrogen base like in DNA ,they have thymine as nitrogen base and in RNA
, they have uracil. In DNA ,they contain the five carbon sugar as deoxyribose and in RNA , the
five carbon sugar as ribose sugar.RNA is single stranded and DNA is double stranded..
A brief introduction to human genetics. Relevant to medical students i.e biochem, anatomy and physiology students.
It might be very short but it is also helpful.
What are nucleic acidsWhy are these molecules so important to liv.pdfdeepakarora871
What are nucleic acids?
Why are these molecules so important to living organisms?
What are the basic structures of DNA and RNA? How are they similar? How are they different?
Solution
1.
Nucleic acids are the biopolymers or the molecules that allow the transfer of genetic material
from one generation to another generation.
These large biomolecules are necessary to all known forms of life.
The nucleic acids consists of nucleotides monomers linked together. Nucleotides consists of
nitrogenous base, five carbon sugar, phosphate group.
Nucleotides are linked together to form polynucleotide chains.
These are linked by a covalent bond and the linkage is between the phosphate and sugar
molecule and the linkage is called the phosphodiester linkage.
They are two types of nucleic acids they are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid ) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid ).
Phosphodiester linkage forms the phosphate sugar backbone of both DNA and RNA.
2. DNA contains the instructions for the performance of all cell functions.
DNA is a genetic material and it is organized into the chromosome and it is found in the nucleus
of the cell and it is copied from one generation to another generation.
RNA is essential for synthesis of proteins . The information contained within the genetic code is
passed from DNA to RNA and they results in the formation of proteins.
3. DNA is a double helical structure and it consists of purines and pyramidines which are four
nitrogen bases like adenine, guanine , cytosine and thymine and phosphate -deoxyribose sugar
backbone.
In a double stranded DNA adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.
RNA is a single stranded molecule . It consists of phosphate ribose sugar backbone and the
nitrogenous bases like adenine ,guanine ,cytosine and uracil.
In RNA strand, adenine pairs with uracil and guanine pairs with cytosine. The nitrogen bases get
bonded to each other by hydrogen bonds.
The DNA and RNA are similar in having three nitrogenous bases like adenine, guanine and
cytosine and they are also similar in phosphate group.
They are different in nitrogen base like in DNA ,they have thymine as nitrogen base and in RNA
, they have uracil. In DNA ,they contain the five carbon sugar as deoxyribose and in RNA , the
five carbon sugar as ribose sugar.RNA is single stranded and DNA is double stranded..
DNA is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all living organisms.It consists of two long strands that coil around each other to form a double helix structure.The four nucleotides that make up DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine in DNA.RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):
Dna replication and importance of its inhibition pdfssuserf4e856
A research topic submitted by some students of the first year in Al-Azhar Pharmacy in Assiut in 2020 in the subject of cell biology under the supervision of Dr. Omar Mohafez holds a PhD in biochemistry and is a professor at the same college.
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The genetic material of any organisms is the substance that stores information about structure, function and
Development of various characteristics of a living
organisms.
DNA is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all living organisms.It consists of two long strands that coil around each other to form a double helix structure.The four nucleotides that make up DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine in DNA.RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):
Dna replication and importance of its inhibition pdfssuserf4e856
A research topic submitted by some students of the first year in Al-Azhar Pharmacy in Assiut in 2020 in the subject of cell biology under the supervision of Dr. Omar Mohafez holds a PhD in biochemistry and is a professor at the same college.
NCERT Books Class 12 Biology Chapter 6 Molecular basis of InheritanceExplore Brain
NCERT Books Class 12 Biology Chapter 6
Molecular basis of Inheritance
ncert books class 12,
ncert books for class 12,
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The genetic material of any organisms is the substance that stores information about structure, function and
Development of various characteristics of a living
organisms.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
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Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
3. OCCURRENCE
The term NUCLEIC ACID is the overall name for
DNA and RNA, members of a family of
biopolymers and is synonymous with
polynucleotide.
Nucleic acids were named for their initial
discovery within the nucleus, and for the
presence of phosphate groups (related to
phosphoric acid).
The first isolation of what we now refer to as
DNA was accomplished by JOHANN FRIEDRICH
MIESCHER circa 1870.
He reported finding a weakly acidic substance
of unknown function in the nuclei of human
white blood cells, and named this material
"nuclein".
4. A few years later, Miescher separated nuclein into
protein and nucleic acid components. In the
1920's nucleic acids were found to be major
components of chromosomes, small gene-
carrying bodies in the nuclei of complex cells.
Elemental analysis of nucleic acids showed the
presence of phosphorus, in addition to the usual
C, H, N & O. Unlike proteins, nucleic acids
contained no sulfur.
Although first discovered within the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells, nucleic acids are now known to
be found in all life forms as well as some
nonliving entities, including within bacteria,
archaea, mitochondria, chloroplasts, viruses and
viroids.
5. To reflect the unusual sugar component,
chromosomal nucleic acids are called
deoxyribonucleic acids, abbreviated DNA.
Analogous nucleic acids in which the sugar
component is ribose are termed ribonucleic
acids, abbreviated RNA. The acidic character of
the nucleic acids was attributed to the
phosphoric acid moiety.
All living cells contain both DNA and RNA
(except some cells such as mature red blood
cells), while viruses contain either DNA or RNA,
but usually not both. The basic component of
biological nucleic acids is the nucleotide, each
of which contains a pentose sugar (ribose or
deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a
nucleobase.
6.
7. Complete hydrolysis of chromosomal nucleic
acids gave inorganic phosphate, 2-deoxyribose
(a previously unknown sugar) and four different
heterocyclic bases (shown in the following
diagram).
8. Nucleic acids are also generated within the
laboratory, through the use of enzymes (DNA
and RNA polymerases) and by solid-phase
chemical synthesis. The chemical methods also
enable the generation of altered nucleic acids
that are not found in nature, for example peptide
nucleic acids.
9. STRUCTURE
Nucleic acid structure refers to the structure of
nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Chemically
speaking, DNA and RNA are very similar. It is
often divided into four different levels primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
12. Primary structure consists of a linear sequence
of nucleotides that are linked together by
phosphodiester bonds. It is this linear sequence
of nucleotides that make up the primary
structure of DNA or RNA. Nucleotides consist of
3 things:
1.Nitrogenous base
1.Adenine
2.Guanine
3.Cytosine
4.Thymine(present in DNA only)
5.Uracil (present in RNA only)
2. 5-carbon sugar which is called deoxyribose
(found in DNA) and ribose (found in RNA).
3. One or more phosphate groups.
13. The nitrogen bases adenine and guanine are
purine in structure and form a glycosidic bond
between their 9' nitrogen and the 1' -OH group of
the deoxyribose. Cytosine, thymine and uracil
are pyrimidines, hence the glycosidic bonds
forms between their 1' nitrogen and the 1' -OH of
the deoxyribose.
For both the purine and pyrimidine bases, the
phosphate group forms a bond with the
deoxyribose sugar through an ester bond
between one of its negatively charged oxygen
groups and the 5' -OH of the sugar. The polarity
in DNA and RNA is derived from the oxygen and
nitrogen atoms in the backbone.
14. Nucleic acids are formed when nucleotides
come together through phosphodiester linkages
between the 5' and 3' carbon atoms.
A nucleic acid sequence is the order of
nucleotides within a DNA (GACT) or RNA
(GACU) molecule that is determined by a series
of letters. Sequences are presented from the 5'
to 3' end and determine the covalent structure of
the entire molecule.
Sequences can be complementary to another
sequence in that the base on each position is
complementary as well as in the reverse order.
An example of a complementary sequence to
AGCT is TCGA.
15. DNA is double-stranded containing both a sense
strand and an antisense strand. Therefore, the
complementary sequence will be to the sense
strand.
16. Nucleic acid design can be used to create
nucleic acid complexes with complicated
secondary structures such as this four-arm
junction. These four strands associate into this
structure because it maximizes the number of
correct base pairs, with A's matched to T's and
C's matched to G's.
Secondary Structure
Secondary structure is the set of interactions
between bases, i.e., parts of which is strands are
bound to each other. In DNA double helix, the
two strands of DNA are held together by
hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides on one strand
base pairs with the nucleotide on the other
strand.
17. The secondary structure is responsible for the
shape that the nucleic acid assumes. The bases
in the DNA are classified as Purines and
Pyrimidines.
The purines are Adenine and Guanine. Purines
consist of a double ring structure, a six
membered and a five -membered ring containing
nitrogen. The pyrimidines are Cytosine and
Thymine. It has a single ringed structure, a six -
membered ring containing nitrogen. A purine
base always pairs with a pyrimidine base
(Guanosine (G) pairs with Cytosine(C) and
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) or Uracil (U).
18. DNA's secondary structure is predominantly
determined by base-pairing of the two
polynucleotide strands wrapped around each
other to form a double helix. There is also a
major groove and a minor groove on the double
helix.
The secondary structure of RNA consists of a
single polynucleotide. Base pairing in RNA
occurs when RNA folds between
complementarity regions. Both single- and
double-stranded regions are often found in RNA
molecules. The antiparallel strands form a helical
shape.
21. Z-DNA is a relatively rare left-handed double-
helix. Given the proper sequence and
superhelical tension, it can be formed in vivo but
its function is unclear. It has a narrower, more
elongated helix than A or B.
22. Tertiary structure is the locations of the atoms in
three-dimensional space, taking into
consideration geometrical and steric
constraints. A higher order than the secondary
structure in which large-scale folding in a linear
polymer occurs and the entire chain is folded
into a specific 3-dimensional shape. There are 4
areas in which the structural forms of DNA can
differ.
1.Handedness - right or left
2.Length of the helix turn
3.Number of base pairs per turn
4.Difference in size between the major and
minor grooves
23. The tertiary arrangement of DNA's double helix in
space includes B-DNA, A-DNA and Z-DNA.
B-DNA is the most commons form of DNA in
vivo and is narrower, elongated helix than A-
DNA. Its wide major groove makes it more
accessible to proteins.
A-DNA is shorter and wider than helix B. Most
RNA and RNA-DNA duplex in this form. A-DNA
has a deep, narrow major groove which does not
make it easily accessible to proteins. On the
other hand, its wide, shallow minor groove
makes it accessible to proteins but with lower
information content than the major groove.
25. Encoding Information
Perhaps the most familiar function of a nucleic
acid in the body is that of DNA, or
deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA contains the genetic
code, which consists of the sum of all
information a cell or organism requires
performing its functions.
Your cells, for instance, have a central nucleus
that contains your DNA. Based upon the
information contained in the DNA, the cell can
produce structural and functional proteins that
allow it to function, explain Drs. Reginald Garrett
and Charles Grisham in their book
"Biochemistry."
26. The quaternary structure of nucleic acids is
similar to that of protein quaternary structure.
Although some of the concepts are not exactly
the same, the quaternary structure refers to a
higher-level of organization of nucleic acids.
Moreover, it refers to interactions of the nucleic
acids with other molecules. The most commonly
seen form of higher-level organization of nucleic
acids is seen in the form of chromatin which
leads to its interactions with the small proteins
histones.
Also, the quaternary structure refers to the
interactions between separate RNA units in the
ribosome or spliceosome.
27. There are many different roles that nucleic acids,
which include DNA and RNA, play in the human
body and in other living organisms. Scientists
continue to identify new and different functions of
nucleic acids on a regular basis. The most common
functions, however, relate to the encoding of
genetic information and production of proteins.
FUNCTIONS
28. Transferring Information
To make a structural or functional protein, a cell
needs to get genetic information from DNA out
of the nucleus and into the rest of the cell,
where the protein-producing machinery is
located. Nucleic acids called mRNA, for
messenger ribonucleic acid, form in the
nucleus.
They copy information from the DNA, and then
leave the nucleus. Out in the cytoplasm, or
liquid medium of the cell, the mRNA serves as a
working template of genetic information for the
protein-producing machinery.
29.
30. References
Biochemistry
By H. Stephen Stoker
Chemistry for Changing Times
By John W. Hill, et. al.
www.olemiss.edu/depts/chemistry/courses/chem471
/ch08_10.ppt
www.saburchill.com/IBbiology/.../02_THE_NUCLEIC_
ACIDS.ppt
www.biologyjunction.com/Nucleic%20Acids.ppt
www.biology-
resources.com/powerpoints/Genetics/01-
DNA/DNA.ppt
www.karentimberlake.com/Nucleic%20Acids.ppt
31. The Swiss scientist Johann Friedrich Miescher
discovered nucleic acids (DNA) in 1869. Later,
he raises the idea that they could be involved in
heredity.