Sites of the highest risk are the duodenum, for adenocarcinomas, and the ileum, for carcinoids and lymphomas.
In industrialized countries, small bowel cancers are predominantly adenocarcinomas;
In developing countries, lymphomas are much more common.
The incidence of small bowel cancer rises with age and has generally been higher among males than among females.
The risk factors for small bowel cancer include
Dietary factor
Cigarette smoking,
Alcohol intake,
Medical conditions -Crohn's disease, familial adenomatous polyposis, cholecystectomy, peptic ulcer disease, and cystic fibrosis.
The protective factors may include rapid cell turnover, a general absence of bacteria, an alkaline environment, and low levels of activating enzymes of precarcinogens.
Testicular tumors are rare.
1 – 2 % of all malignant tumors.
Most common malignancy in men in the 15 to 35 year age group.
Benign lesions represent a greater percentage of cases in children than in adults.
Most curable solid neoplasm
Gall bladder carcinoma seen in Indian popluation most common in women and presents at a very late stage .Survival is in months hence palliative treatment is being preferred .
Sites of the highest risk are the duodenum, for adenocarcinomas, and the ileum, for carcinoids and lymphomas.
In industrialized countries, small bowel cancers are predominantly adenocarcinomas;
In developing countries, lymphomas are much more common.
The incidence of small bowel cancer rises with age and has generally been higher among males than among females.
The risk factors for small bowel cancer include
Dietary factor
Cigarette smoking,
Alcohol intake,
Medical conditions -Crohn's disease, familial adenomatous polyposis, cholecystectomy, peptic ulcer disease, and cystic fibrosis.
The protective factors may include rapid cell turnover, a general absence of bacteria, an alkaline environment, and low levels of activating enzymes of precarcinogens.
Testicular tumors are rare.
1 – 2 % of all malignant tumors.
Most common malignancy in men in the 15 to 35 year age group.
Benign lesions represent a greater percentage of cases in children than in adults.
Most curable solid neoplasm
Gall bladder carcinoma seen in Indian popluation most common in women and presents at a very late stage .Survival is in months hence palliative treatment is being preferred .
Target audience : Oncology fellows and Oncologists.
Four challenging cases of Bladder cancer and managing decisions including latest management principles are discussed here.
This is a powerpoint on Bladder Cancer. Sources are on the last slide of the powepoint! No copy right intended! Enjoy! I hope you learn a lot and I hope you live your life Bladder Cancer free! Also the red words are what I would say during the presentation, basically extra details! So keep that in mind!
-Shelby
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
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2. Anatomy of Bladder
The bladder is the most anterior element of the pelvic
viscera.
The empty bladder is shaped like a three-sided pyramid .
It has an apex, a base, a superior surface, and two
inferolateral surfaces.
Apex: The apex of the bladder is directed toward the top of
the pubic symphysis.
Base: The base of the bladder is shaped like an inverted
triangle and faces posteroinferiorly.
The inferolateral surfaces of the bladder are cradled between
the levator ani muscles of the pelvic diaphragm and the
adjacent obturator internus muscles above the attachment of
the pelvic diaphragm.
3.
4. Normal Histology
The mucosal surface of the renal pelvis, ureters,
urinary bladder, and urethra is lined by a
multilayered epithelium.
The most superficial of which consists of
“umbrella cells”.
This epithelial lining has historically been called
“transitional epithelium,” it is currently
preferentially referred to as urothelium.
The wall of the urinary bladder is formed of four
layers: (a) epithelium (urothelium), (b) lamina
propria, (c) muscularis propria, and (d) adventitia
or serosa.
5.
6. Urothelial neoplasm
The urotheliumof the bladder is traditionally
considered to be lined by transitional cells,
can transform into a variety of benign and
malignant tumors.
Therefore the list of bladder tumors is long
and includes those derived from the
urotheliumand mesenchyme
7. Benign Tumors of the Bladder
There are numerous benign tumors of Bladder
Common ones :
1) Epithelial metaplasia,
2) Leukoplakia
3) Inverted papilloma
4) Nephrogenic adenoma
5) Leiomyoma
6) Cystitis cystica
7) Cystitis glandularis.
8. Epithelial metaplasia:
Focal areas of transformed urotheliumwith
normal nuclear and cellular architecture.
Located in trigone either squamous or glandular
metaplasia.
As white flaky knobby appearance in case of
Squamous metaplasia and raised red areas in
case of Glandular ones.
Appx 40% of women and 5% of men had
squamous metaplasia.
Usually related to trauma,Infection and surgery.
No treatment necessary.
9. Leukoplakia
Similar to squamous metaplasia but addition
to keratin deposition
Appears as a white flaky substance floating in
the bladder.
Benign lesion, and no treatment is necessary
10. Inverted Papilloma
Associated with chronic inflammation or
bladder outlet obstruction and can be located
throughout the bladder but most commonly
on the trigone.
Inverted papillomas behave in a benign
fashion with only a 1% incidence of tumor
recurrence.
FISH to differentiate it from Urothelial
malignancy.
TRUP treatment of choice.
11. Papilloma
Benign proliferative growth in the bladder
that is composed of delicate stalks lined by
normal-appearing urothelium.
Papillomas had previously been categorized
as grade 1 Ta tumors of the bladder which
latter classified as non invasive malignancy of
bladder.
Papillomas may recur, but they do not
progress or invade.
12. Nephrogenic Adenoma
Rare tumor caused by chronic irritation of the
urothelium.
Trauma, previous surgery, renal transplantation,
intravesical chemotherapy, stones, catheters, and
infections predispose to it.
The lesion may be vascular, which explains the
presence of gross hematuria in most cases.
The most frequent presenting symptom is gross
hematuria, often in conjunction with a urinary tract
infection.
Transurethral resection and elimination of the
chronic irritation.
13. Cystitis Cystica and
Glandularis
Common finding in normal bladders, usually
associated with inflammation or chronic obstruction.
Represent cystic nests that are lined by columnar or
cuboidal cells.
Cystitis glandularis may develop into or coexist with
intestinal metaplasia, which are benign tumors
characterized by goblet cells that are histologically
similar to colonic epithelium.
The most common presenting feature of cystitis
cystica or glandularis is irritative voiding symptoms
and hematuria.
Treatment is transurethral resection and relief of the
obstruction or inflammatory condition.
14. Leiomyoma
Most common nonepithelial benign tumor of the
bladder composed of benign smooth muscle.
Most commonly in women of childbearing age and
are histologically similar to leiomyomas of the
uterus.
Leiomyomas appear as smooth indentations of the
bladder.
Imaging, especially with magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), can confirm the diagnosis.
Surgical resection is required if the leiomyoma is
large or painful.
15.
16. Cancer of Bladder
Topic of discussion for any malignancy
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
17. Cancer of bladder
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
18. Urothelial cancer
Why urothelial cancer is important ?
Urothelial cancer is a cancer of the environment and
age.
The incidence and prevalence rates increase with
age, peaking in the 8th decade of life.
There is a strong association between environmental
toxins and urothelial cancer formation.
Unfortunately, the incidence rate is rising the fastest
in underdeveloped countries where industrialization
has led to carcinogenic exposure.
7% of all cancers.
19. Bladder cancer is the 9th most common
cancer worldwide, with 357,000 cases
recorded in 2002.
Bladder cancer is the 13th most common
cause of death, accounting for 145,000
deaths worldwide.
The incidence rate of bladder cancer has been
rising in Asia and Russia because of an
increased prevalence of smoking.
20. Cancer of bladder
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
21. Etiology/Risk factors
Genetic - N-acetyl transferase (NAT) detoxifies
nitrosamines, a known bladder carcinogen.
Specifically, NAT-2 regulates the rate of acetylation of
compounds such as caffeine, which are related to bladder
cancer formation.
The slow NAT-2 polymorphism is related to bladder
cancer with an odds ratio of 1.4 compared with the fast
polymorphism.
Glutathione-S-transferase (GSTM1) conjugates several
reactive chemicals, including arylamines and
nitrosamines.
The null GSTM1 polymorphism is associated with an
increased bladder risk with a relative risk of 1.5.
The null GSTM1 and slow NAT-2 lead to high levels of 3-
aminobiphenyl and higher risk of bladder cancer.
22. External risk factors
The bladder is the main internal organ affected
by occupational carcinogens after skin and Lung.
The primary culprits are the aromatic amines
that bind to DNA.
Among the first chemical agents implicated in
the formation of bladder cancer in dye and
rubber workers were benzidine and β-
naphthylamine.
Other industrial agents implicated in bladder
cancer formation include polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH), diesel exhaust, and paint
substances.
23. Smoking - Accounts for 60% and 30% of all
urothelial cancers in males and females,
respectively.
Nutritional factors - moderately higher in
coffee and tea drinkers, but this may be
compounded by smoking or other dietary factors
associated with people who drink coffee or tea.
Less fluid intake.
Alcohol : No association has been proved.
Acetaminopen : Commonly used analgesic-increased
risk of renal and bladder cancer.
24. Inflammation/ Infection:
1) Schistosoma hematobium – Squamous cell
ca of bladder.
2) HPV.
3) Bacterial – Chronic infection esp with E.Coli
and Pseudomonas.
25. Radiation exposure : Urothelial cancer
formation after radiation is not age related,
but the latency period is 15 to 30 years.
Chemotherapy – Only agent
Cyclophosphamide.
Hereditary
26. Cancer of bladder
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
27. Pathology
90% of bladder cancers are of urothelial
origin, 5% are squamous cell carcinomas, and
less than 2% are adenocarcinoma or other
variants.
At initial presentation, 80% of urothelial
tumors are non–muscle invasive.
28. WHO grading of Non invasive
tumors
Hyperplasia (flat and papillary)
Reactive atypia
Atypia of unknown significance
Urothelial dysplasia (low-grade intraurothelial neoplasia)
Urothelial carcinoma in situ (high-grade intraurothelial
neoplasia)
Urothelial papilloma
Urothelial papilloma, inverted type
Papillary urothelial neoplasm of low malignant potential
Noninvasive low-grade papillary urothelial carcinoma
Noninvasive high-grade papillary urothelial carcinoma
29. WHO grading of Invasive tumors
Lamina propria invasion
Muscularis propria (detrusor muscle) invasion
33. Cancer of Bladder
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
34. Clinical features
Often vague
Gross or microscopic hematuria.(Most common).
Increased urinary frequency due to irritation of
bladder. (20-30%)
Less commonly UTI or upper urinary tract
obstruction symptoms in advanced cases.
Pelvic or bony pain, lower-extremity edema, or
flank pain - In patients with advanced disease.
Palpable mass on physical examination - Rare in
superficial bladder cancer.
35. Cancer of Bladder
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
36. Investigation and Diagnosis
Urine studies include the following:
Urinalysis with microscopy
Urine culture to rule out infection, if suspected
Voided urinary cytology
Urinary tumor marker testing
Urinary cytology:
Standard noninvasive diagnostic method
Low sensitivity for low-grade and early stage
cancers
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) may
improve the accuracy of cytology
37. Investigation and Diagnosis
Cystoscopy
The primary modality for the diagnosis of bladder
carcinoma
Permits biopsy and resection of papillary tumors
Upper urinary tract imaging
Necessary for the hematuria workup
American Urologic Association Best Practice Policy
recommends computed tomography (CT) scanning of the
abdomen and pelvis with contrast, with preinfusion and
postinfusion phases
Imaging is ideally performed with CT urography, using
multidetector CT
Ultrasonography is commonly used, but it may miss
urothelial tumors of the upper tract and small stones
38. Urinary tumor markers
More than 30 urinary biomarkers have been reported
for use in bladder cancer diagnosis.
Only few available for commercial use others still in
experimental phase.
They are
urine cytology,
fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH),
nuclear matrix protein (NMP-22),
BTA STAT, (Bladder tumor Antigen)
BTA TRAK,
ImmunoCyt/uCyt+,
CertNDx, and
CxBladder.( Uses 5 mRNA markers)
40. Interpretation of Results
The diagnostic strategy for patients with
negative cystoscopy is as follows:
Negative urine cytology and FISH - Routine
follow-up
Negative urine cytology, positive FISH -
Increased frequency of surveillance
Positive urine cytology, positive or negative
FISH - Cancer until proven otherwise
41. Cancer of bladder
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
42. TNM Staging
Primary Tumor (T)
TX Primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0 No evidence of primary tumor
Ta Noninvasive papillary carcinoma
Tis Carcinoma in situ: “flat tumor”
T1 Tumor invades subepithelial connective tissue
T2 Tumor invades muscularis propria
pT2a Tumor invades superficial muscularis propria
(inner half)
pT2b Tumor invades deep muscularis propria (outer half)
T3 Tumor invades perivesical tissue
pT3a Microscopically
pT3b Macroscopically (extravesical mass)
T4 Tumor invades any of the following: prostatic
stroma, seminal vesicles, uterus, vagina, pelvic wall,
abdominal wall
T4a Tumor invades prostatic stroma, uterus, vagina
T4b Tumor invades pelvic wall, abdominal wall
43. Regional Lymph Nodes (N)
Regional lymph nodes include both primary and secondary
drainage regions. All other nodes above the aortic
bifurcation are considered distant lymph nodes.
NX Lymph nodes cannot be assessed
No lymph node metastasis
N1 Single regional lymph node metastasis in the true
pelvis (hypogastric, obturator, external iliac, or
presacral lymph node)
N2 Multiple regional lymph node metastasis in the
true pelvis (hypogastric, obturator, external iliac,
or presacral lymph node metastasis)
N3 Lymph node metastasis to the common iliac
lymph nodes
Distant Metastasis (M)
M0 No distant metastasis
M1 Distant metastasis
44.
45. Treatment Protocol
Treatment protocols for bladder cancer
includes those of
1) Surgery
2)Chemotherapy,
3)Immunotherapy,
4)Systemic neoadjuvant
5)Adjuvant therapy.
46. Non-muscle invasive bladder
cancer (Ta, Tis, T1)
Non-muscle invasive bladder cancers are divided
into 3 groups: Ta, Tis, and T1
Ta are noninvasive papillary lesions confined to the
urotheliumand have not penetrated the basement
membrane.
Standard treatment for non-muscle invasive bladder
cancer is a complete transurethral resection of the
bladder tumor (TURBT).
Intravesical chemotherapy is generally used as
prophylactic or adjuvant therapy after complete
endoscopic resection
It is rarely used as therapy to eradicate residual
disease that could not be completely resected.
47. Postoperataive adjuvant intravesical chemotherapy
for non-muscle invasive bladder cancer[1, 2] :
One postoperative intravesical dose (within 24h,
but usually immediately after resection) has
been shown to reduce recurrence, but not
progression, of disease
Mitomycin 40 mg in 20 mL sterile water or
Epirubicin 80 mg in 40 mL sterile water or
Thiotepa 30 mg in 15 mL sterile water or
Doxorubicin 50 mg in 20 mL sterile water
48. High grade or T1 disease:
Management of T1 tumors with TURBT is generally
not adequate enough; use of intravesical bacillus
Calmette-Guerin (BCG) after TURBT is
recommended
Intravesical adjuvant immunotherapy for non-muscle
invasive bladder cancer[1, 3, 2] :
BCG 81 mg (TheraCys) or 50 mg (TICE BCG) in 50
mL sterile saline instilled into the bladder through a
catheter and held for 2h; it is instilled into the
bladder weekly for 6wk
Maintenance therapy: 81 mg intravesically given on
Days 1, 8, and 15 of Months 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 36
after initiation
49. Muscle invasive bladder cancer
The treatment of muscle-invasive bladder
cancer is as follows:
Radical cystoprostatectomy in men
Anterior pelvic exenteration in women
Bilateral pelvic lymphadenectomy (PLND),
standard or extended
Creation of a urinary diversion
Neoadjuvant chemotherapy - May improve
cancer-specific survival
50. Chemotherapeutic regimens for metastatic
bladder cancer include the following:
Methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin
(Adriamycin), and cisplatin (MVAC)
Gemcitabine and cisplatin (GC)
51. Cancer of bladder
1) Incidence and prevalence.
2) Etiology/ Risk factors.
3) Pathology.
4) Clinical features.
5) Investigation and diagnosis.
6) Staging and Management.
7) Prognosis
52. Prognosis
The recurrence rate for superficial TCC of the
bladder is high. As many as 80% of patients
have at least 1 recurrence.
The most significant prognostic factors for
bladder cancer are grade, depth of invasion,
and the presence of CIS.
In patients undergoing radical cystectomy for
muscle-invasive bladder cancer, the presence
of nodal involvement is the most important
prognostic factor.
53. Prognosis
Non–muscle invasive bladder cancer has a good
prognosis, with 5-year survival rates of 82-100%. The
5-year survival rate decreases with increasing stage,
as follows:
Ta, T1, CIS – 82-100%
T2 – 63-83%
T3a – 67-71%
T3b – 17-57%
T4 – 0-22%
Prognosis for patients with metastatic urothelial
cancer is poor, with only 5-10% of patients living 2
years after diagnosis.
54. Other types of Bladder
Cancer
Squamous Cell Ca:
The second most common cell type associated with
bladder cancer in industrialized countries.
However, SCC is the most common form of bladder
cancer, accounting for 75% of cases in developing
nations.
In developing nations, SCC is often associated with
bladder infection by Schistosoma haematobium.
The overall 5-year survival rate was 56% for pT1 and
68% for pT2 tumors. However, the 5-year survival
rate for pT3 and pT4 tumors was only 19%
55. Other types of Bladder
Cancer
Approximately 2% of bladder cancers are
adenocarcinomas.
Nonurothelial primary bladder tumors are
extremely rare and may include small cell
carcinoma, carcinosarcoma, primary
lymphoma, and sarcoma.
Small cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder
accounts for only 0.3-0.7% of all bladder
tumors.
56. Conclusion
Urinary tract is lined by multilayered epithelium called
‘Urothelium’
Urothelium can transform into wide variety benign and
malignant neoplasms.
Most common malignancy of bladder is Urothelial carcinoma
followed by squamous cell carcinoma.
It is a common malignancy due to occupation hazard for those
working in chemical esp., Dyeing industry.
Genetic factors such NAT and Glutathione deficiency states and
smokers are more prone for urothelial cancer.
Schistasomiasis leading cause of SCC in developing world.
80% cases at presentation are non muscle invasive
Hematuria is the most common presenting complaint
57. Conclusion
Cystoscopy, urine tumor markers,USG and CT
abdomen are the investigations used in diagnosis
and staging of the tumor.
Muscle non invasive cancers include Ta,Tis and T1
stage tumors.
Such cases treated with TURBT and intravesicle
chemotherapy depending on grade
Others are treated with radical surgery and follow up
adjuvant chemotherapy.
Prognosis of superfiscial bladder cancer is good
touching 80-100% 5 yr survival rate and prognosis
worsens with increasing depth of invasion.