1. The majority (95%) of primary bladder tumors originate from the bladder epithelium and are transitional cell carcinoma (90%). Squamous cell carcinoma (5%) and adenocarcinoma (1-2%) can also occur. 2. Risk factors for bladder cancer include occupational exposures like chemicals, smoking, and infections like Schistosomiasis. 3. Evaluation involves urine cytology, cystoscopy, imaging and biopsy. Treatment depends on tumor stage and grade, ranging from transurethral resection for non-muscle invasive tumors to radical cystectomy for muscle-invasive tumors.

1. THE URINARY BLADDER
TUMORS
Dr. Ali Kamal M. Sami
M.B.Ch.B. M.A.U.A.
F.I.B.M.S. M.I.U.A.

2. Ninety-five per cent of primary bladder tumours
originate in the epithelium;
the remainder arise from connective tissue
angioma, myoma, fibroma and sarcoma) .
secondary tumours of the bladder from the
sigmoid and rectum, the prostate, the uterus or
ovary,

3. Pathology
Benign papillary tumours.
The papilloma consists of a single
frond with a central vascular core
with villi; it looks like a red sea-
anemone .

4. Carcinoma arising
within the bladder may
be of three cell types:
Transitional 90%
Squamous 5%
Adenocarcinoma 1-
2%, which arises either
from the urachal
remnant.

5. Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC):
Occupations which have been reported to have a
significantly excess risk of bladder cancer are shown below
Occupations with an excess risk of bladder cancer
1. Textile workers
2. Dye workers
3. Tire rubber and cable workers
4. Petrol workers
5. Leather workers
6. Shoe manufacturers and cleaners
7. Painters
8. Hairdressers
9. Lorry drivers
10. Drill press operators
11. Chemical workers
12. Rodent exterminators and sewage workers
Cigarette smoking is associated with a two to three-fold excess risk.In areas where S.
haematobium is endemic bladder cancer is more common, and this tends to be squamous

6. Tumour staging and grading
Study of the biological behaviour of transitional cell cancer of the
bladder shows that they fall into the three following groups.
• Non muscle invasive tumours (pTa) and (pT1) account for 70%.
These tumours may be single or multiple. Histological examination may
reveal invasion of the lamina propria (pT1) but not of the muscle or no
invasion of lamina propria (pTa) .
• Muscle invasive disease(T2)(T3)(T4) (accounts for 25 per cent of new
cases). Such tumours carry a much worse prognosis as they are subject
to local invasion and distant metastasis.
• Flat, noninvasive carcinoma in situ (CIS) accounts for 5%.

7. Superficial bladder cancer (pTa
and pT1)
These are usually papillary tumours
which grow in an exophytic fashion
into the bladder lumen.
They may be single or multiple and
may appear pedunculated arising on
a stalk with a narrow base,
but if the’ tumours are less well
differentiated they are more solid
with a wider base.
The most common sites for
superficial tumours are the trigone
and lateral walls of the bladder.

8. Muscle invasive transitional cell carcinoma
The tumour with muscle invasion is nearly
always solid. These tumours are often large and
broad based, having an irregular, ugly,
sometimes ulcerated, appearance within the
bladder. The incidence of metastases, whether
from lymphatic invasion in the pelvis or blood-
born to the lung, liver or bones, is much more
common and will cause the death of 3 0—50
per cent of patients.

9. In situ
carcinoma
The histological
appearance of irregularly
arranged cells with large
nuclei and a high mitotic
index replacing the
normally well ordered
urothelium is known as
carcinoma in situ.

10. Pure squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder
Squamous cell tumours tend to be solid and are
nearly always associated with muscle invasion. This is
the most prevalent form of bladder cancer in areas
where bilharzia is endemic. Squamous cell tumours
may be associated with chronic irritation caused by
stone disease in the bladder as a result of metaplasia.

11. Pure adenocarcinoma
This accounts for approximately 1—2
per cent of bladder cancer. It usually
arises in the fundus of the bladder at
the site of the urachal remnant.

12. Clinical features
1. Painless Intermittent haematuria is by far the most
common symptom and should be regarded as indicative of
a bladder carcinoma until proven otherwise.
2. Constant pain in the pelvis usually heralds extravesical
spread.
3. There is often frequency and discomfort associated with
urination.
4. Pain in the loin or pyelonephritis may indicate ureteric
obstruction and hydronephrosis.
5. A late manifestation is nerve involvement causing pain
referred to the suprapubic region, groins, perineum, anus
and into the thighs.

13. Investigation
•Urine.
Urine should be cultured and examined cytologically for malignant cells. This is not a
good screening test for patients with haematuria as, particularly with low-grade
tumours, malignant cells may not be identified .
•Blood tests like (Hb , S.electrolytes , B.Urea).
•IVU.
-The most common radiological sign is a filling defect.
-Hydronephrosis may occur if a superficial tumour grows up the intramural ureter or if
direct invasion of the ureteric wall occurs.
•- Ultrasound scanning should be carried out if the kidney is nonfunctioning.
•Cystourethroscopy.
Cystourethroscopy is the mainstay of diagnosis and should always be performed on
patients with haematunia. It can be done with a rigid instrument under general
anaesthesia or with a flexible instrument under local anaesthesia. The urethra is
inspected at the initial insertion of the instrument (urethroscopy) and the bladder is
then examined in a systematic fashion (cystoscopy).
•Bimanual examination.
A bimanual examination with the patient fully relaxed under general anaesthesia
should be performed both before and after endoscopic surgical treatment of these
tumours.

15. Noninvasive tumours•
Endoscopic surgery (TURBT)(Trans Urethral Resection of Bladder Tumor)
The tumour should be carefully resected in layers using a resectoscope. The base
of the tumour is sent separately for histological examination. Small biopsies are
taken near to and distant from the primary lesion to diagnose unsuspected CIS.
The bimanual examination is repeated at the end of each endoscopic procedure.
Follow-up. Most urologists agree that patients with a single, low- or medium-
grade pTa tumour can safely be treated by resection alone and followed up by
means of regular cystoscopies.
The resection may be followed by a 6-week course of intravesical chemotherapy
with mitomycin C, adriamycin or epirubicin.
Others will treat such patients by means of endoscopic treatment followed by
intravesical immunotherapy with intravesical bacillus of Calmette and Guérin
(BCG).
Follow-up cystoscopies are essential; they may be carried out by means of local
anaesthesia with a flexible cystoscope on by means of general anaesthesia if the
urologist feels that the patient has a high risk of recurrence.
They are usually done in 3 months intervals in first year.
6 months intervals in the second year.
Yearly intervals for the next 3 years.

16. Intravesical chemotherapy and
immunotherapy
Various agents have been used as
chemotherapy. These include
•Thiotepa.
•mitomycin C.
•epirubicin.
•adriamycin.
Immunotherapy agent includes:
BCG is now frequently used as intravesical
immunotherapy

17. Open surgical excision
This should be totally avoided. If by some
error a bladder containing a tumour is
entered, then the tumour may be removed
with a diathermy needle and the base
coagulated and the bladder closed.
Postoperative radiotherapy to the wound
will diminish the chance of tumour
implantation.

18. 2.Invasive tumours
•Radical cystectomy.
•Radical radiotherapy.
•Combination of the two.
•Primary surgery(radical
cystectomy) followed by
a combination of agents
using cis-
platinum, methotrexate, a
driamycin and vinblastine
(MVAC)

19. Radiotherapy
Local radiotherapy. For
small invasive
lesions, local
Deep external beam X-ray therapy. radiotherapy can be
External beam radiotherapy is usually delivered by open
given by means of high-powered placement of a
linear accelerators. Radical radioactive tantalum
radiotherapy giving 60 Gy over a 4— wire. It is used
6-week period will produce a 40—50 infrequently today.
per cent complete response.

20. Surgery
Partial cystectomy. This should be limited to the
treatment of small adenocarcinomas at the dome of
the bladder.
Radical cystectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy. This
is now standard treatment for localised pT2—pT3
disease without evidence of secondary spread.
Operation
The radical cystectomy
Needs diversion of urine by:
•Ileal conduit.
•Ureterosigmodostomy:
Orthotopic ileal neobladder

21. Leukoplakia
This condition is simply squamous metaplasia of the bladder. Profuse
production of keratin may result in the passing of white particles in the
urine. It cannot be treated easily. Localised areas may be resected
endoscopically.
Diffuse leucoplakia of the bladder is premalignant and results in
squamous bladder cancer. Careful cystoscopic assessment is required.
The condition may require cystectomy.

22. Endometriosis
Endometriosis within the bladder wall is rare, but can have the
appearance of a vascular bladder tumour or a tumour which contains
chocolate-coloured or bluish cysts. The swelling enlarges and bleeds
during menstruation. If medical management fails, by means of danazol
or luteinising hormone-releasing agonists (LHRH), further treatment is
usually by means of partial cystectomy or full-thickness endoscopic
resection, depending on its site. The condition may be part of more
widespread disease. Endometriosis is also a cause of ureteric stricture.

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