Ming ottoman comparative sample essay
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The document is a sample comparative essay analyzing how merchants were viewed differently in the Ottoman Empire and Tokugawa Japan from 1450-1750. The introduction provides background on the time period and civilizations. The thesis argues that in the Ottoman Empire, Islamic beliefs and its central location led to a positive view of merchants and open trade policies, while in Tokugawa Japan, Confucian ideals and isolation led to a negative view of merchants and closed trade. The essay then provides body paragraphs analyzing the different trade regulations and social standing of merchants in each civilization, attributed to differences in religion, geography, and values.
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Comparative text responses require balancing analysis of individual texts with comparison of how the two texts address similar topics, themes or issues. Effective responses introduce an argument, discuss each text in depth supported by evidence, compare the texts by highlighting similarities and differences, and conclude by restating the position. Structuring can focus on discussing each text separately then comparing, integrate comparison throughout, or organize by similarity or difference. Strong responses demonstrate thorough understanding of texts and how authors construct meaning, develop logical interpretations, justify with evidence, and express ideas fluently.
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The document summarizes evidence disproving common Eurocentric myths about civilizations in India, Southeast Asia, and Japan between 1400-1800. It shows these regions had advanced economies, significant international trade, and states that promoted economic growth rather than hindered it as commonly believed. For example, India led the world in industries like cotton, steel, and was highly integrated in global trade networks. Japan also experienced rapid economic growth and urbanization under the Tokugawa shogunate in the 1600s, despite myths of isolationism. The document aims to provide a more well-rounded view that recognizes Eastern achievements rather than only a Eurocentric perspective.
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The Biological Old Regime
Praying for enough, let alone growth
Topics
Working with Sources
The biological old regime
A world of limited good
Economic growth is non-existent or transient
Empire as a political system for the world of limited good
Ancient/medieval/early modern trade circuits
The division of labor and pursuit of comparative advantage in a world of limited good
Working with Sources:
Key Aspects of Interpretation
Written (texts)
Who wrote it?
When and where was it written?
What type of document is it?
Why did they write it (audience, circumstances)?
Point of view?
What is believable and why?
What can we learn from it?
Strengths?
Limitations?
Keep these things in mind as you do the readings and answer the prompts. They all point to the importance of:
Context
Contingency
Comparison
Change over time
Defining Terms
What do we mean by Biological Old Regime?
World of Limited Good
Annual surplus beyond needs of subsistence very small
What do we mean by an empire?
Multiethnic
Multi-confessional
Multicultural
Metropole, periphery and dilemmas of imperial rule
Empires c. 1450
Biological Old Regime
Up until 18th century, humans everywhere lived within this same set of environmental constraints to the generation of wealth.
World existed within “biological old regime”
Very little surplus wealth generated
“Pie” is finite. The only way you get a bigger slice is by taking it from someone else.
This is a “world of limited good”
Europe exists on the periphery of global commerce. Global wealth largely concentrated in Asia.
Eight Circuits of the 13th-Century World System: Get to know this well
Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 34.
Thinking about Empire
By 1450, much of global commerce shaped by break-up of Mongol empire and replacement by others
How did empire’s work?
This was a system for getting more pie by taking it from someone else.
Extracting revenue and recruits
Trade as low hanging fruit; Mongols and others had an interest in promoting it in order to tax it.
Coopting local elites vs. direct administration; work for us and have your titles confirmed, or die.
Incorporating local custom: little effort to impose universal laws beyond those related to revenue and recruit extraction.
Administering a huge territory is very expensive
> efficiency = > centralized rule = < toleration = > chance for rebellion = > cost
Eastern Hemisphere c. 1500.
Old World Trading Circuits Refined
Polycentric Trade
Each circuit had a predominant group, but no single group controlled it all
Force not used to keep goods flowing—no rules on what must be sold or purchased where and from whom
Ships sailed w/ goods w/o naval escorts, as all had an interest in good outcomes.
No one party attempted to dominate trade—corner the market
Trade a conduit for cultural, technological, and commercial exchange—protected from danger for the mutual benefit of all parties involved
In .
The Asia And Islamic Empires In Transition33
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1. The document outlines major global developments between 1450-1750, including the rise of global trade, absolutism, and European dominance due to exploration and colonization.
2. Key empires that rose and declined in this period include Ming China, Tokugawa Japan, the Ottoman Empire, Mughal India, and various African kingdoms.
3. European powers like Portugal, Spain, the Dutch, and British established global colonial empires and trading networks through exploration, initially to bypass Ottoman control of trade routes but later through institutions like joint-stock companies.
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Europe in Asia
Gunpowder, expansion and state consolidation in a world of limited good
Topics
European Overseas Expansion
State consolidation
The Gunpowder Revolution
Mercantilism: The policy of imperial expansion and state consolidation in a world of limited good
Southwest Asia
European Exploration as Desperation
Cut off from access to main trade centers.
Even before cut off, access difficult and expensive.
Access connected to European state formation/consolidation
Henry the Navigator
Connecting through N. Africa
Finding Prester John
Portuguese Exploration
European Entry into Indian Ocean and End of Polycentrism
Reconquista in Spain (unification of Iberian peninnsula by kicking out Muslims and Jews)
State building
Gunpowder (shift in military technology)
Different attitude to property (concept of private property based on application of labor: labor theory of value)
Different attitude toward trade; modeled on practices of Italian city-states in Mediterranean, which extended practice of control over trade in ports (common throughout the world) to shipping lanes.
Running a protection racket along shipping routes like modern day pirates)
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Armed trade
Beginning of end of polycentrism in global economy
Europeans arrived and did not find this
China as the big player in all of this, the driver of global trade
Voyages of Admiral Zheng He, 1405-1433
Specifically charged w/ encouraging trade after collapse of Mongol empire, years of Chinese isolation and earlier policies (and lack of silver) led to collapse of trade and Chinese currency
And then, as suddenly as they appeared, the Chinese were gone
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The Emergence of the Modern State, c. 1500-1700 as means to achieve this
What do we mean by “modern” or “nation” in this context?
What factors contributed to consolidation of political authority in centralized states?
Gunpowder
What policies sustained consolidated states?
Revenue, recruits and labor
All had to be extracted from a world of limited good
What do we mean by “modern” state?
Modern:
Centrally administered states that can extend their authority throughout territory (more or less)
Nation?
yes and no
although rhetoric was there, much still missing, such as homogenous print culture and internal markets
New types of identities
Medieval “local” erodes further, even for rural inhabitants
Social estate (more caste than class) still important, but “subject” of a particular ruler becoming more prevalent among population
But remember…
“I’m not dead yet!”
Empire as a form of political organization still viable, vibrant and, in many ways, victorious (made it to 20th Century):
Russian Empire
Ottoman Empire
Qing Dynasty
11
Two Tracks for State Development
Both claimed to benefit the commonweal/the common good
Limitation of monarchy by law and representa.
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Ming ottoman comparative sample essay
- 2. Introduction Paragraph Time Period In the time period 1450-1750, merchants were viewed differently among rulers from civilization to civilization. In Ming China and Ottoman Empire, both had absolute rulers who had their own opinions about the merchant class in their population. Ming China and Ottoman Empire are different in that Ming China looked down upon their merchants whereas the Ottomans respected theirs, however, both civilizations’ merchants were wealthy despite how the rulers viewed them. Missing Causation
- 3. Thesis Statement The Ottoman Empire had a great relationship with the merchant class, encouraged trade, and gave merchants benefits, while Tokugawa Japan strongly discouraged trade, looked down upon the merchant class, and isolated themselves from the rest of the world. Missing Causation and Similarity
- 4. Thesis Statement In Tokugawa Japan merchants were given less rights and lower status due to Neo-Confucian governing policies and in the Ottoman Empire merchants were treated well due to their religious connections to the prophet Muhammad. Missing Similarity
- 5. Thesis Statement In Ming China, with the exception of Yonglo, the merchants were frowned upon for both religious and economic reasons. However, in the Ottoman Empire merchants were loved and even given special privileges by the sultans due to Islamic beliefs. Missing Similarity
- 6. Thesis Statement The Ottoman Sultan and the Tokugawa Shogun both influenced and regulated trade, however, Ottoman Islamic beliefs and centralized location created a positive view of the merchants and a policy of trade while Confucian ideals and a protected location created a negative view of merchants and a policy of isolation. Despite these differences each policy had a positive impact on their respective society.
- 7. Sample Essay: Intro and Thesis During period 4 (1450-1750) a new set of Empires were founded and interactions between societies were formed again. Trade routes continued flourishing and merchants gained enormous wealth if they were successful. In two such empires, the Ottoman and Tokugawa Japan, the trading class had a unique relationship with their ruler. Both Empires effectively monitored and controlled their traders with their extensive bureaucracy but differed in where traders were placed in society due to their respective religions, Islam and Confucianism and geographic locations.
- 8. Sample Essay: Body Paragraph 1 For merchants in both Japan and the Ottoman Empire bureaucracy was built to ensure fair trades and prevent the evasion of taxes. The Ottomans for example, levied tariffs on foreign goods and provided for inspections on the goods that were brought into the Empire. In this way merchants would not cheat the government. While trade was more limited in Tokugawa Japan, similar restrictions were set on traders. They were to be inspected periodically in order to ensure the proper taxes had been paid and no illegal trades had been made. Thus, in both the Ottoman Empire and Tokugawa Japan traders were regulated with their respective government leaders.
- 9. Sample Essay: Body Paragraph 2 While both societies regulated trade, Japanese traders faced many more restrictions. After a turn inward during period 4, merchants were restricted to trading only with the Dutch, Chinese, and some Koreans. Such trade only took place in Nagasaki Bay. Also, trade with the Dutch only occurred a maximum of once a year. This difference comes from two factors. One, traders were considered a threat to Japanese society, and the Shogun was concerned of a foreign invasion. Secondly, borrowed Confucian values put traders on the lowest part of their society below farmers and peasants. Analysis
- 10. Sample Essay These factors were nearly the opposite in the Ottoman society. Unlike their Japanese counterparts, the Ottomans were Muslim. The Islamic tradition teaches that their Prophet Muhammad was a trader. Therefore, merchants have a much increased social standing. This coupled with an empire that effectively served as a middle man for the Silk Road trade created an empire extremely tolerant and accepting of traders. Thus, while traders faced restrictions for these Analysis differences they were not as severe.
- 11. Sample Essay This point lends itself to one final difference: geographic location. Being a group of islands, Japan had little benefit from trading in a terms of sustenance, most goods could be produced domestically. This reason further eroded the standing of merchants in Tokugawa Japan. The Ottomans on the other hand focused on expansion, not nurturing domestic markets. This, in addition to their key location as the link between Europe and the lucrative silk routes forced a reliance on traders. In this situation, the relationship between merchants and government only increased.
- 12. Conclusion Overall, during the 4th period interactions between peoples expanded across the globe. A complex network of trade that linked sellers of silk in Ming China with buyers in Europe developed and lead to the rise of a powerful class of merchants. In two such empires, the Ottoman and the Tokugawa, traders were restricted by government overseers and investigators, in addition to tariffs, but because of differences in geographic position and religion the relationship between merchant and rulers was very different. In Japan, it’s island geography and classic Confucian values created a superior and inferior relationship between Shogun and merchant. In the Ottoman Empire, Islam and it’s “Middle Man” geography lent itself to less restrictive and more fair relationship between the Sultan and traders.