The document explores the impacts of male migration on gender dynamics within irrigation governance in Nepal, highlighting how out-migration has led to increased responsibilities for women in agricultural and irrigation activities. It studies women's participation in Water User Associations (WUAs), noting changes in labor contributions, decision-making roles, and the necessity of technological advancements to cope with labor shortages. The findings suggest that while women's roles have expanded, challenges such as limited decision-making power and the persistence of traditional norms remain prevalent.

2. Irrigation
system
performance [
Knowledge
Labor contribution
Monetary/in-kind
contribution
Decision-making in
governance (# of meetings,
participants, etc.)
Technology
Male
migration
Agricultural
productivity
Rainfall
Shocks
Other inputs (labor,
knowledge, yield-enhancing
and risk-reducing inputs and
technologies, etc.)

3. Irrigation
system
performance
Labor contribution
Monetary/in-kind
contribution
Knowledge
Decision-making in
governance (# of meetings,
participants, etc.)
Technology
Male
migration
Agricultural
productivity
Rainfall
Shocks
Other inputs (labor,
knowledge, yield-enhancing
and risk-reducing inputs and
technologies, etc.)
Research questions:
• Institutional innovation: What changes in
formal rules of WUAs and in gender norms? Do
these encourage women’s participation in
irrigation?
• Technological innovation: What new
technologies and transport? How do these
change demands for male and female labor?
Have these been financed by remittances?
• Women’s roles: Do women take on
membership and leadership roles in WUAs? Do
women meet labor contributions through
hiring labor, or female labor, or not at all? How
does caste, ethnicity, and wealth affect
women’s participation in irrigation?
• Outcomes: What consequences for
effectiveness of irrigation systems, collective
action, and equity of distribution of benefits?
Does the adaptation result in more inclusive
and transparent decision making in irrigation
system management?

4. Study methods
• Literature review
• Phone survey of 336 Water Users’
Association leaders representing 7
provinces as well as terai, hills and
mountain systems.
• Qualitative study of 10 irrigation
systems spread in different
topographical regions
• “Deep dive” qualitative study of 2
contrasting cases with high male
migration

5. Migration and
Gender Dynamics
in Irrigation
Governance in
Nepal: Results of
Phone Survey with
WUA Leaders
• Ruth Meinzen-Dick and Wei Zhang
(IFPRI)
• Prachanda Pradhan (Farmer Managed
Irrigation System Promotion Trust,
Nepal [FMIST])
Photo credits: Bob Yoder, Manita Raut

6. Study methods
• Phone survey of 336 Water Users’ Association leaders representing 7
provinces as well as terai, hills and mountain systems.
• Conducted by Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems Promotion Trust
• Addressing responses to male migration, including
• Gendered participation in meetings and irrigation activities
• Changes in rules
• Technological changes
• Note:
• Basic facts and opinions of key informant (usually WUA President)
• Changes over 10 years may not be capturing migration (recall problems, migration
may be >10 years)

7. Top 5 reported consequences of (male) migration
Overall
%
reporting
(N=336)
Women playing role in irrigation management 84.4
Women taking decision role 85.5
Women contribute to maintenance 80.0
Women pay cash instead of labor for maintenance 44.4
Change labor to cash contributions for O&M 63.4
Women becoming the manager of agriculture production system 79.3
Over burdening the workload of women in irrigation management 75.1
Labor shortage at HH level 69.3
Labor shortage causing the deterioration of the system 4.8
Fallow Land 15.8
Women deprived to be member of executive committee, not owning the land 3.1

8. Explanatory variables
• Key interest variable: Male migration
• Control variables:
• Irrigation system management:
Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) vs Agency or Joint managed
• System size (log ha)
• System type (Gravity vs Lift or Groundwater)
• Topography (Hill, Mountain vs Terai plains)
• Caste/ethnicity (Executive committee members from high caste)
• Respondent’s education (Secondary and above)
• Province fixed effects

9. Gendered Participation
Attend meetings Speak in meetings
Participate in Canal
Maintenance
% Men % Women % Men % Women % Men % Women
Mean without male migration 60.8 39.1 59.5 38.4 55.0 47.2
Mean with male migration 59.3 51.3 59.7 44.6 50.8 52.3
Tobit results
Male out-migration ++ - - ++
Irrigation system managed by FMIS - - - -
Irrigation system size (log ha) + +
Irrigation system type =Gravity + +++
Topography: Hill ++ - -
Topography: Mountain -
Education Secondary and above + +
# high caste executive committee members
Province Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

10. Women’s Participation In Irrigation
Allowed to do
maintenance in
place of male
members
Participate in
operation
Participate in
water allocation
Participate in
water
distribution
Participate in
supervision of
water
distribution
Special
facilities
provided for
women
Mean without male migration 93.1 90.4 89.0 87.6 79.4 15.0
Mean with male migration 97.7** 93.5 93.5* 93.5** 92.8** 56.0***
Binomial probit results
Male out-migration ++ ++ ++ ++ +
Irrigation System managed by =FMIS
Irrigation system size (log ha) -
Irrigation system=Gravity - - - - - - - - - + - -
Topography: Hill +
Topography: Mountain + +++
Education Secondary and above
Number of executive members
belong to dominant castes
+ +
Province Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

11. Rules
Women
members in
own right
Man absent,
woman takes
membership
Women
participation
in meetings
Labor
contribution
only
Both labor
and cash
contribution
Contract
system for
maintenance
Mean without male migration 89.0 83.5 72.6 38.3 53.4 13.6
Mean with male migration 96.2*** 87.1 83.3** 31.8 82.5*** 32.9***
Binomial probit results
Male out-migration + +++ +++ ++
Irrigation System managed by =FMIS - - - - - ++ -
Irrigation system size (log ha) - - - - - - - - - + +++
Irrigation system=Gravity - - - -
Topography: Hill - - - - - - - - +++
Topography: Mountain - - - - - - - - - - -
Education Secondary and above - - - -
Number of executive members belong
to dominant castes + +++
Provinces Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

12. Technological Change
Women plow
in absence of
men
Women
operate
tractors
Sprinkler/
drip
irrigation
Weeders Harvesters Threshers
Mean without male migration 8.2 2.7 27.3 8.2 9.5 49.3
Mean with male migration 9.8 6.0 19.6 5.6 12.8 57.1
Binomial probit results
Male out-migration ++ +++ ++
Irrigation System managed by =FMIS ++ +++
Irrigation system size (log ha) +++ +++ +++
Irrigation system=Gravity
Topography: Hill - - - - - -
Topography: Mountain + - - - - -
Education Secondary and above -
Number of executive members belong
to dominant castes - - - - - - - - -
Provinces Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

13. “Impacts of migration
on gender dynamics in
irrigation governance in
Nepal - Findings from
case study of 10
irrigation systems”
Prachanda Pradhan (Farmer
Managed Irrigation System
Promotion Trust, Nepal [FMIST])
Photo credits: Bob Yoder, Manita Raut

14. Assumptions Objective of the Study
Out-migration of youths from the rural areas
would create vacuum of labor force.
Adds burden of agriculture and irrigation
activities to women.
Review from wider perspective empowering
women for decision making in agriculture and
water management encompassing factors such
as:
• change in technology
• change in legal system
• agriculture mechanization
• labor demand and supply system
• physical improvements in irrigation and
transportation systems
• monetization of economy leading to
empowering women
Background of Case Study

15. Location of Study Systems

16. Case Study in 10 Systems
Preparation Methodology
• The systems studied were 20 to over 200
years old
• I’ve studied these systems for the last 20 –
40 years
o observed multi-factor changes over
periods of time
• Historical perspectives of system
development
• Changes taken place, role changes of
women and men
• Focus group discussions on gender dynamics
on irrigation and agriculture management
• Key informant interviews (with local leaders
and irrigation officials)
General Findings
Out-migration has different characteristics depending on the location:
• Around urban areas, youth have moved from agriculture activities to industrial activities
• Male members near district headquarters became absent during daytime for jobs
• Short-term migration either within Nepal or in India for seasonal work
• Long-term migration to Malaysia, Gulf countries, etc., for 3-5 years

17. Results of Out-Migration
Out-migration of youth from the rural areas has caused a short supply of
manpower, resulting in an increase of activities done by women in agriculture
and irrigation:
• Agriculture laborers from different districts have filled the vacuum where labor
shortage is experienced through the usage of mobile phones (Chitwan/Rupendehi)
• Continuation of the traditional pattern of labor exchange among households in some
places called “Perma” - specially among women
• Partial or full mechanization of agricultural activities has reduced the burden on
women. E.g., plowing by bullock is replaced by tractors and land preparation,
threshing, harvesting and storing by mechanical help
• Transformation to monetization from labor base irrigation and agriculture activities
to cash base activities, due to shortage of labor
• Women have the ability to pay cash for maintenance of irrigation system

18. Results of Out-Migration
• Improvement in physical features in irrigation systems require less time for O&M
(Jamara, Chhatis Mauja, Itura, etc.), resulting more time for women to be involved
in extra-income activities
• Access to improved roads and bicycles help women to participate in irrigation
related activities like in Chitwan and Kailali
• Livestock raising pattern has changed to cash income, lessening the burden of fodder
collection and grazing by women at household level
• Remittance enables women to hire laborers by paying cash and is a key factor in
lessening the burden of women in agricultural activities
• The households decide to give the land either on share cropping or on contract
farming if there is not enough manpower
• Out of these changes, women are now becoming the managers of agricultural
activities
• Women are now given a special place in WUA, either by guaranteeing 33% of
membership or in other decision-making roles.
• Over 33% women have been represented in the case studies

19. Thank you
Prachanda Pradhan
pradhanpp@hotmail.com

20. Gendered Institutional Dynamics
(Re)shaping Women’s Roles in Water
User Associations in Nepal
Manita Raut, Diana Suhardiman, Ruth Meinzen-Dick
International Water Management Institute (IWMI)

21. CONTEXT
Irrigation Policy 2003 formally
mandated women’s involvement
in Water User Association (WUA)
through membership composition
Continued engagement of women in
agriculture despite to male migration
In Nepal, women have always been part of
irrigation system management, though
informally
Policy measure-
a starting point to
formalize involvement
of women in WUAs
Tokenistic participation
with limited bargaining
power and decision
making authority

22. Objective of the Study:
• Unpack women’s views in relation to their envisioned roles in irrigation
system management, following male out migration, and how the latter
are linked with WUA’s organizational and structural characteristics
• Understand as to how these events (re)shape gendered responses to
adapt to the changing agrarian context

23. Study Methods Numbers Respondent
Characteristics
Focused Group
Discussions
1 Mixed gender and
1 women only groups
in each sites
Mixed Gender and Women Only
Key Informant
Interviews
WUA general
members (2 in each
site) and WUA
executive members
(2 in each sites)
Position in the family(daughter in
law, mother in law), Family
type(nuclear and joint),
Membership in WUA (position in
WUA)

24. Study Location
Janakalyan Irrigation
System (JIS)
Kalleritar Irrigation
System(KIS)
Janakalyan Irrigation System
located in Terai Plans in
Chitwan district
Kalleritar Irrigation System
located in mid-hills in Dhading
district

25. • Located in Terai Plains at Chitwan district
• Monetization of labor requirements, paid for
by remittances, done by desi (migrant) male
labor
• WUA Engagement:
• Biguti (irrigation operator/distributer)
appointed by WUA to manage water
distribution
• Informal channels via relatives, local
irrigation official, instead of direct
participation in WUA
• Mechanization through use of hired tractor,
rice harvesters etc
• Located in mid-hills in Dhading district
• Low availability of male laborers to hire
• WUA Engagement:
• Women involved in canal maintenance
activities through labor provision, rather
than cash compensation
• Limited and slow mechanization due to hilly
topography
About Study Locations
Janakalyan—Terai Kalleritar —mid-hills

26. Key Findings and Reflections

27. • Women did not view their participation in
WUAs’ as important, because water is
abundant: “Multiple household responsibilities
keep me busy and leave me no time to attend
WUA meeting. Also, I do not see any reason
why I have to be more involved in WUA
organizational activities if my brother in law
could also take care sufficient and reliable
water service provision to my fields”
• Use of network and Informal channels via
relatives, local irrigation official, instead of
direct participation in WUA
• Women report time savings due to tractors
and rice harvesters
• Monetization reduces labor requirements via
desi (migrant) male labor
Contrasting approaches in exercise of women’s
agency
Janakalyan—Terai Kalleritar —mid-hills
• Lack of mechanisms for women to cope with labor
constraints translates into women’s insistence to
be involved in canal maintenance activities
through labor provision, rather than cash
compensation
• “Being a member of WUA would safeguard
women’s rights. Women should use their
representation in WUA as a means to achieve their
needs, even when this means they have to interact
differently with men” (older woman)
• Mechanization does not reduce women’s labor
constraints: “While men use tractor (power tiller)
for ploughing the field, the land would still need to
be leveled and the latter has become women’s new
task as well”

28. On Gendered Participation in WUA: Women SPEAK
Increased participation does not
mean greater decision making
power
“Women lack any decision making in
WUA. Unlike decision made by (older)
men, valued by both women and
men, women’s opinions are not
valued. Increasingly now, women are
part of WUA Committee, but with less
decision-making role, if any.”
(interview with a woman farmer from
JIS, December 2019)
WUA Participation Challenges
Time constraints managing
domestic and agricultural tasks but
Family ties/kinship in Terai case:
a) conducive for some in appointment
in WUA executive committee
b) reliance for agricultural and water
related work

29. Women Agency and Labor Provision for Canal
Management
On the contrary, women’s direct involvement in Kalleritar (mid-hills) WUA canal
management is important for decision-making space
Women were able
push for stronger
rules to control
overall practice of
only men providing
labor for irrigation
maintenance
“Letting women fight alone to change
age old gender norms could take a lot
of time. Hence, there is a need for men
to understand the value of women’s
participation, so that they can also
support women membership and
decision making in WUA” (interview
with a woman, December 2019)

30. Water distribution
decisions
Social Network (eg
with appointed
irrigation operators
in WUA)
Rules and practices
such as labor
provision for irrigation
system maintenance
Women’s views and
strategies to cope
with male out
migration
are interlinked with WUA’s
organizational rules and
functioning around…
(Quota system for women and minority
groups)
On WUA’s organizational rules and
functioning (re)shaping gendered
institutional dynamics

31. Reflections
In this context, implication of male migration in WUA is shaped by women’s agency where women’s
choices are diverse and shaped by
• Availability of agricultural labor
• Availability of remittance income to pay for labor
• Mechanization
• Leadership of a few women who engage in “male space”

32. Thank you

34. Extra slides (Ruth)

35. Gendered Participation
Attend meetings Speak in meetings
Participate in Canal
Maintenance
% Men % Women % Men % Women % Men % Women
Mean without male migration 60.8 39.1 59.5 38.4 55.0 47.2
Mean with male migration 59.3 51.3 59.7 44.6 50.8 52.3
Tobit results
Male out-migration -1.2911 7.6635** 0.5893 2.1493 -6.2212** 5.7450**
Irrigation system managed by FMIS 1.6858 -4.9916* 0.1695 -6.6661*** 0.1169 -0.5857
Irrigation system size (log ha) 1.0746* -0.6377 0.917 -0.3166 1.0248* -0.5946
Irrigation system type =Gravity -0.9947 5.9749* -1.595 9.7537*** -3.4722 2.5599
Topography: Hill 5.7548** -0.3808 2.7118 -6.5511** -0.1086 0.7804
Topography: Mountain -1.9655 -3.5471 -1.6455 -6.6081* 1.0087 -1.217
Education Secondary and above 0.0611 3.4618 -0.0676 3.1533* 3.1817* -2.0227
# high caste executive committee members -0.2637 -0.1597 -0.4574 0.3636 -0.2433 0.8686
Province Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

36. Women’s Participation In Irrigation
Allowed to do
maintenance in
place of male
members
Participate in
operation
Participate in
water allocation
Participate in
water
distribution
Participate in
supervision of
water
distribution
Special
facilities
provided for
women
Mean without male migration 93.1 90.4 89.0 87.6 79.4 15.0
Mean with male migration 97.7** 93.5 93.5* 93.5** 92.8** 56.0***
Binomial probit results
Male out-migration 0.0749** 0.0940** 0.0442 0.1045** 0.1201** 0.1280*
Irrigation System managed by =FMIS -0.0133 0.025 -0.0149 -0.0276 0.0173 0.0032
Log area ha -0.0016 -0.001 -0.0190* -0.0046 -0.0052 -0.01
Irrigation system=Gravity -0.0369*** -0.0813*** -0.0767*** 0.1395* 0.0026 -0.1277**
Topography: hill 0.0626* 0.0555 -0.0242 -0.0089 -0.0552 -0.0193
Topography: Mountain 0.0295* 0.0678*** 0.0021 -0.0772 -0.0718 -0.0327
Education Secondary and above -0.003 -0.0122 0.0018 -0.0062 0.0121 0.0295
Number of executive members
belong to dominant castes
0.0178* 0.0229* 0.0039 0.0034 0.0166 0.0111
Province Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

37. Rules
Women
members in
own right
Man absent,
woman takes
membership
Women
participation
in meetings
Labor
contribution
only
Both labor
and cash
contribution
Contract
system for
maintenance
Mean without male migration 89.0 83.5 72.6 38.3 53.4 13.6
Mean with male migration 96.2*** 87.1 83.3** 31.8 82.5*** 32.9***
Binomial probit results
Male out-migration 0.0471* 0.01 0.2347*** -0.0499 0.2944*** 0.1312**
Irrigation System managed by =FMIS -0.0287 -0.1181*** 0.0013 -0.1161** 0.1197** -0.0853*
Log area ha -0.0317*** -0.0341*** -0.0277* -0.0384** 0.0245* 0.0514***
Irrigation system=Gravity -0.0509*** -0.0698 0.079 0.0476 0.0185 -0.1292*
Topography: hill -0.0694** -0.1995*** 0.0011 -0.2495*** 0.0344 0.2858***
Topography: Mountain -0.2079*** -0.2824*** -0.2004** -0.2066*** -0.0013 0.0828
Education Secondary and above 0.0036 -0.0682*** -0.0580* -0.0503 -0.0064 0.0618
Number of executive members belong
to dominant castes
0.0159* 0.0742*** 0.0054 0.0091 -0.0133 0.0114
Provinces Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

38. Technological Change
Women plow
in absence of
men
Women
operate
tractors
Sprinkler/
drip
irrigation
Weeders Harvesters Threshers
Mean without male migration 8.2 2.7 27.3 8.2 9.5 49.3
Mean with male migration 9.8 6.0 19.6 5.6 12.8 57.1
Binomial probit results
Male out-migration 0.0616** 0.0204 0.0003 0.0129 0.0932*** 0.1161**
Irrigation System managed by =FMIS 0.0332 -0.0028 0.1113** 0.0263 0.0872*** -0.012
Log area ha 0.0108 0.0051 0.021 0.0258*** 0.0439*** 0.0696***
Irrigation system=Gravity 0.0315 -0.0113 -0.0362 0.0361 0.0163 0.0896
Topography: hill 0.0148 0.0282 0.0711 -0.0153 -0.1280*** -0.3439***
Topography: Mountain 0.1024* -0.0193 -0.0199 0.0174 -0.0700** -0.4275***
Education Secondary and above 0.031 0.0068 -0.0336 -0.0239 -0.0480* 0.0115
Number of executive members belong
to dominant castes
-0.0390*** -0.0442*** -0.0081 -0.0290** -0.0228* -0.0281
Provinces Fixed Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes