Metro and mega cities are typically characterized by rapid population growth and urbanization driven by factors such as migration from rural areas, natural population growth, and globalization. Metro cities have populations of at least one million people and serve as economic, political and cultural centers, while mega cities have populations over 10 million people. Growth trends in these urban areas commonly include increasing urbanization, economic development, and demographic, land use, and infrastructure changes. They face challenges related to housing, transportation, environmental issues and ensuring social equity and inclusion.

1. Metro and
Mega cities
problem and
issues
MASTER IN PLANNING
UNIT 3, LECTURE 1,2,3,4
PROF. DR. NEHA BANSAL

2. A metro city or metropolitan area is a large urban
area that includes a city and its surrounding suburbs
and towns. It typically has a population of at least one
one million people and is the economic, political, and
and cultural center of a region
A mega city, on the other hand, is an urban area with a
population of more than 10 million people. It is a term
used to describe the largest and most populous cities in
the world, such as Tokyo, Mumbai, and New York City.
Mega cities are often characterized by high population
density, rapid growth, and significant economic and
cultural influence.

3. Facts
As of 2021, there are over 30 metro areas in the world with populations of 10 million or
more, and over 500 metro areas with populations of at least one million. (Source: World
Atlas)
The Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan area is the largest metro area in
the world, with a population of over 37 million people. (Source:
United Nations
As of 2020, there were 33 mega cities in the world, accounting for roughly 10%
of the global population. (Source: World Population Review)
The urbanization rate (i.e. the percentage of the world's population living in
urban areas) has been steadily increasing, from 30% in 1950 to 55% in 2018.
By 2050, it is expected to reach 68%. (Source: United Nations)

5. Growth trends
and Processes
Migration
from rural to
urban
Population
growth of
urban areas
Globalization
Metro and mega cities are typically
characterized by rapid population
growth and urbanization.
These trends have been driven by a
variety of factors, including migration
from rural areas, natural population
growth, and globalization.
Factors driving the growth

6. Urbanization
Economic development
Demographic changes
Land use changes
Infrastructure development
Social and cultural changes
Growth trends and processes
commonly observed in metro and
mega cities
1. Urbanization: As people migrate from rural areas to cities in
search of better opportunities, urbanization rates in metro and
mega cities tend to rise. This process is fueled by the growth of
industries, which attract workers to urban areas, and the
availability of basic amenities such as healthcare, education,
and housing.
2. Economic development: Metro and mega cities often serve as
economic hubs for their respective regions, attracting
businesses and investors from around the world. This growth
is supported by the presence of advanced infrastructure, such
as transport networks, communication systems, and energy
grids.
3. Demographic changes: As cities grow, so do their populations,
leading to changes in the demographics of these areas. This
can include changes in age distribution, ethnic and cultural
diversity, and household size.
4. Land use changes: As cities expand, land use patterns tend to
change. Agricultural land may be converted to urban
development, and green spaces may be replaced with
buildings and roads. This can have significant impacts on the
environment and local ecosystems.
5. Social and cultural changes: As cities grow, they become
melting pots of different cultures and social groups, leading to
new forms of cultural expression, social norms, and identity
formation.
6. Infrastructure development: As cities grow, they require more
extensive and advanced infrastructure to support their
populations. This includes transport networks, power grids,
and water and sanitation systems, which are often developed
in response to the needs of growing urban areas.

7. Characteristics of Metropolitan
areas
Positive
(opportunities) Negative
(challenges)

8. Characteristics of
Metropolitan
areas
Population
•Metropolitan areas have
large populations,
typically consisting of a
central city and its
surrounding suburbs
•They attract a significant
number of residents due
to job opportunities,
amenities, and cultural
attractions.
Economic Center
•Metropolitan areas serve
as economic
powerhouses, with a
concentration of
businesses, industries,
and employment
opportunities.
•They are often hubs for
finance, technology,
manufacturing, and other
sectors, driving regional
and national economies.
Urbanization
•Metropolitan areas are
heavily urbanized,
characterized by high
population density and
built-up environments.
•They have a mix of
residential, commercial,
and industrial areas, and
often feature tall
buildings and urban
infrastructure.
Infrastructure
•Metropolitan areas have
well-developed
infrastructure, including
transportation networks
(such as roads, highways,
railways, and airports),
utilities (water,
electricity, and
telecommunications), and
public services (schools,
hospitals, and public
safety).

9. Cultural and
Social Diversity
•Metropolitan areas are
melting pots of diverse
cultures and social
backgrounds. They
attract people from
various ethnicities,
religions, and
nationalities,
contributing to a rich
multicultural
environment
•This diversity is
reflected in the arts,
cuisine, and social
fabric of the
metropolitan
Cultural and
Entertainment
Facilities
•Metropolitan areas
offer a wide range of
cultural and
entertainment
amenities, including
museums, art
galleries, theaters,
music venues, sports
stadiums, shopping
centers, and
restaurants.
•They provide
residents and visitors
with a diverse array of
cultural experiences
and recreational
activities.
Research and
Education
•Many metropolitan
areas are home to
renowned universities,
research institutions,
and educational
facilities.
•They foster innovation,
knowledge exchange,
and intellectual
development, driving
advancements in various
various fields.
Governance and
Administration
•Metropolitan areas
often have specific
governance structures
and administrative
bodies responsible for
managing the region's
affairs. This can involve
collaboration among
multiple local
governments and
authorities to address
common challenges and
plan for sustainable
development.
Characteristics
of Metropolitan
areas

10. Socioeconomic Disparities
While metropolitan areas offer
opportunities, they also exhibit
socioeconomic disparities. There
can be stark differences in income
levels, access to services, and
quality of life between different
neighborhoods and communities
within the metropolitan area.
Commuting and Transportation
Metropolitan areas often face
significant commuting challenges
due to the large population and
traffic congestion
They typically have complex
transportation systems, including
highways, public transit networks,
and commuter rail services, to
facilitate the movement of people
within and between cities.
Housing Diversity and Affordability
Metropolitan areas tend to have
a diverse range of housing
options to accommodate the
needs of their residents.
However, affordability can be a
significant issue, particularly in
highly desirable areas where
housing costs may be high
relative to average incomes.
However, affordability can be a
significant issue, particularly in
highly desirable areas where
housing costs may be high relative
to average incomes.
Cultural and Intellectual
Institutions
Metropolitan areas are home to a
wide array of cultural and
intellectual institutions, including
universities, research centers,
libraries, and think tanks. These
institutions contribute to the
intellectual and creative vibrancy of
the region, fostering innovation,
research, and intellectual discourse.
Characteristics of
Metropolitan areas

11. Healthcare
Facilities
•Metropolitan areas
often have a
concentration of
healthcare facilities,
including hospitals,
specialized clinics, and
medical research
centers. This ensures
access to advanced
medical care and
specialized treatments
for residents.
Social Services
and Community
Support
•Metropolitan areas
typically have a range
of social services and
community support
organizations to
address the needs of
diverse populations.
These may include
programs for affordable
housing, employment
assistance, healthcare
access, education, and
social welfare.
Environmental
Concerns
•As urbanized regions,
metropolitan areas
face environmental
challenges such as air
pollution, waste
management, and
strain on natural
resources. Many
metropolitan areas are
implementing
sustainable practices
and initiatives to
mitigate these
environmental impacts.
Cultural Exchange
and Innovation
•Metropolitan areas are
hubs for cultural
exchange and
innovation, attracting
creative professionals,
entrepreneurs, and
artists. They offer
opportunities for
collaboration,
networking, and
exposure to new ideas,
which contribute to
cultural and economic
growth.
Characteristics
of Metropolitan
areas

12. Political and Administrative Influence
Metropolitan areas often
wield significant political
and administrative
influence due to their
economic importance and
concentration of
population. They may
have unique governance
structures and policies to
address the specific needs
and challenges of the
region
Environmental Challenges
Metropolitan areas face a
range of environmental
challenges, including air
pollution, water pollution,
and waste management.
The high population
density and urbanization
can exacerbate these
issues, making sustainable
development a critical goal
for many metropolitan
areas.
Housing
Housing is often a major
concern in metropolitan
areas, with high demand
and limited availability
leading to high prices. This
can contribute to housing
affordability issues,
homelessness, and
displacement.
Security
Metropolitan areas can
face security challenges
such as crime and
terrorism due to the high
population density and
complex infrastructure.
Law enforcement agencies
often have specialized
units to address these
issues and keep residents
safe.
Political and Cultural
Influence
Metropolitan areas often
have significant political
and cultural influence,
shaping national and
international policies and
trends. They serve as hubs
for media, entertainment,
and cultural production,
influencing the global
zeitgeist.

13. Characteristics
of Sustainable
Metropolitan
areas

14. Concepts of sustainability in metropolitan cities
https://www.mdpi.com/2071-
1050/10/6/2031

15. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-monroe-
environmentalbiology/chapter/17-4-the-sustainable-city/

18. Conceptual map of the literature landscape related to this
review.

20. Issues related to diversity in metropolitan
cities
Editorial: The smart cities
project must promote
diversity
https://www.printfriendly.com/p/g/nPD2yV

21. https://www.citiesallia
nce.org/newsroom/ne
ws/cities-alliance-
news/inclusive-urban-
planning-making-
invisible-visible

22. Issues related to unintended growth in
metropolitan cities

23. Examples and references

24. Social, economic and environmental
sustainability of metropolitan cities
Social, economic, and environmental sustainability are crucial
considerations for the long-term success and well-being of
metropolitan cities
Achieving social, economic, and environmental sustainability in
metropolitan cities requires a comprehensive and integrated
approach that involves collaboration between government
entities, private sector stakeholders, community organizations,
and residents. By prioritizing these aspects, metropolitan areas
can become more livable, resilient, and inclusive, ensuring a
better quality of life for current and future generations.

25. Social Sustainability:
Affordable Housing: Promoting affordable housing
options and preventing the displacement of lower-
income residents is essential for social equity and
inclusivity.
Community Engagement: Encouraging active
community participation and fostering a sense of
belonging through initiatives like neighborhood
associations and participatory decision-making
processes.
Social Services: Ensuring access to quality education,
healthcare, and social services for all residents,
irrespective of their socioeconomic status or
background.
Cultural Preservation: Preserving and promoting
diverse cultural heritage, traditions, and identities
through support for arts, cultural events, and
inclusive urban planning.
Affordable
Housing
Community
Engagement
Social Services
Cultural
Preservation

26. Economic Sustainability:
Economic Diversity: Promoting a diverse range of
industries and sectors to reduce reliance on a single
sector, ensuring economic resilience and job
opportunities for a broad spectrum of skills.
Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Supporting and
nurturing a culture of entrepreneurship and innovation
to foster economic growth, job creation, and the
development of new industries.
Small Business Support: Providing resources,
mentorship, and financial assistance to small and local
businesses to promote their growth and contribute to
the local economy.
Workforce Development: Investing in education and
skills training programs that align with the evolving
needs of the job market to enhance employability and
attract businesses.
Economic diversity
Entrepreneurship and
Innovation
Small Business Support

27. Environmental Sustainability
Sustainable Infrastructure: Developing energy-efficient buildings,
promoting green building practices, and investing in renewable energy
sources to reduce carbon emissions and resource consumption.
Sustainable Transportation: Expanding and improving public
transportation systems, supporting non-motorized transportation
options, and incentivizing the use of electric vehicles to reduce traffic
congestion and air pollution.
Green Spaces and Biodiversity: Preserving and creating urban green
spaces, parks, and urban forests to enhance the quality of life, provide
recreational opportunities, and promote biodiversity.
Waste Management and Recycling: Implementing effective waste
management systems, including recycling programs, waste reduction
initiatives, and the promotion of circular economy principles.
Sustainable
Infrastructure
Sustainable
transportation
Green spaces
and bio diversity
Waste
management
and recycling

29. Quality of life in metropolitan
cities
Social
Connectivity and
Networking
Diversity and
Multiculturalism
Infrastructure
and Services
Education and
Healthcare
Cultural and
Recreational
Amenities
Opportunities
and Economic
Prosperity

30. Inclusivity and equity in
metropolitan cities
Inclusivity and equity are crucial aspects of creating thriving and
sustainable metropolitan cities. To achieve inclusivity and
equity, collaboration among various stakeholders,
including government entities, community organizations,
advocacy groups, and residents, is crucial. It requires a
commitment to addressing systemic inequities and
implementing policies and programs that promote equal
opportunities and access to resources for all residents,
regardless of their socioeconomic background, race,
ethnicity, or other characteristics.

31. Aspects contributing to inclusivity
and equity in metropolitan areas Inclusivity
and Equity in
metropolitan
cities
Affordable Housing -rent control, housing
subsidies, mixed-income developments,
and inclusionary zoning
Accessible Transportation- providing
wheelchair-accessible infrastructure,
reducing transportation costs for low-
income individuals, and improving
connectivity to underserved
neighborhoods
Social Services and Support-equitable
access to social services, such as
healthcare, education, childcare, and
social welfare programs
Community Engagement and
Participation-Establishing
neighborhood associations,
community forums, and
participatory planning initiatives

32. Continued..
Inclusivity
and Equity in
metropolitan
cities
Promoting Diversity and Inclusion-Encouraging
cultural events, supporting minority-owned
businesses, and implementing policies that
prevent discrimination and promote equal rights
Reducing Economic Disparities- implementing
policies that support small businesses, fostering
entrepreneurship, providing job training and
educational opportunities, and ensuring fair wages
and labor protections
Environmental Justice- Avoiding the
disproportionate burden of pollution, improving
access to green spaces in underserved areas, and
implementing sustainable practices that benefit all
residents
Data-Driven Decision Making- Utilizing data and
conducting equity assessments, Analyzing data on
income, education, healthcare access, and other
relevant factors can inform targeted interventions
and ensure resources are allocated equitably

33. Climate change aspects in
metropolitan cities
In the context of metropolitan cities, climate change refers to
the long-term changes in weather patterns and environmental
conditions that are primarily driven by human activities, such
as the emission of greenhouse gases. the scale of
metropolitan cities influences the magnitude and
complexity of climate change impacts. While larger urban
areas face unique challenges, they also possess the
potential to drive significant climate action, leverage
resources, and foster innovation to build resilient, low-
carbon, and sustainable urban environments

34. Temperature Rise
•an overall increase in
temperatures, resulting in more
frequent and intense heatwaves
in metropolitan cities
•can have adverse effects on
public health, increase energy
demands for cooling, and
exacerbate the urban heat island
effect
Increased Vulnerability
•densely populated and
concentrated areas, which makes
them particularly vulnerable to
the impacts of climate change
•Rising temperatures, heatwaves,
extreme weather events (such as
storms, floods, and hurricanes),
sea-level rise, and changes in
precipitation patterns can have
severe consequences for
infrastructure, public health, and
socioeconomic systems.
Infrastructure Risks
•Climate change places stress on
urban infrastructure systems,
including transportation
networks, water supply, energy
grids, and buildings
•extreme weather events can
damage infrastructure, leading to
disruptions in essential services.
For instance, heatwaves can
strain power grids, leading to
blackouts, while intense rainfall
can overwhelm drainage systems,
causing flooding and damage to
roads and buildings.
Public Health Concerns
•Heatwaves can lead to heat-
related illnesses and even deaths,
especially in densely built
environments with limited green
spaces and poor air quality
•Changes in precipitation patterns
contribute to waterborne
diseases and vector-borne
diseases- dengue fever and
malaria
•Air pollution, exacerbated by
climate change, worsen
respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases
Urban Heat Island
Effect
•Metropolitan cities often
experience the urban heat island
effect, where urban areas are
significantly hotter than
surrounding rural areas due to the
concentration of heat-absorbing
surfaces, reduced vegetation, and
waste heat from buildings and
transportation
•This effect exacerbates the
impacts of heatwaves, leading to
increased energy demands for
cooling, reduced air quality, and
negative health effects for
residents.

35. •to invest in infrastructure
adaptation and resilience measures
•strategies such as green
infrastructure (e.g., urban parks,
green roofs), improving drainage
systems, constructing climate-
resilient buildings
Infrastructure
and Resilience
•reducing greenhouse gas emissions
to mitigate climate change
•implement sustainable
transportation systems, promote
energy efficiency in buildings,
transition to renewable energy
sources, and adopt sustainable
waste management practices
Mitigation Efforts
•raise awareness about climate
change, provide education on
sustainable practices, and involve
residents in decision-making
processes
•Engaging citizens, businesses, and
community organizations fosters a
sense of ownership and collective
responsibility for climate action
Community Engagement
and Awareness
•Metropolitan cities are part of
broader regional systems,
interconnected through
transportation, infrastructure, and
economic activities which enables
fostering climate change as it sees
no border and requires regional
cooperation.
•They can collaborate with
neighboring jurisdictions, share
resources, and develop regional
climate action plans to address
common challenges, such as water
management, transportation
networks, and natural resource
conservation
Globalization,
Interconnectedness and
Regional Cooperation
Aspects needed to address climate change impacts in
metropolitan cities

36. Transit-oriented Development (TOD)
In Metropolitan Cities
Transit-oriented development (TOD) in metropolitan cities is a
planning approach that aims to create sustainable, livable, and
interconnected communities centered around efficient public
transportation systems. It involves designing and developing
neighborhoods, commercial areas, and public spaces in close
proximity to transit stations, promoting walking, cycling, and
the use of public transportation

37. some key aspects and benefits of transit-oriented
development in metropolitan cities
Transit-oriented development in metropolitan cities offers a holistic and sustainable approach to urban planning. It promotes efficient
transportation, mixed land uses, social equity, economic vitality, and environmental sustainability. By integrating these principles,
metropolitan areas can create vibrant and resilient communities that meet the needs and aspirations of their residents while
addressing the challenges of urbanization.
Improved
Quality of
Life
Proximity to
Transit
Compact
and Mixed-
Use
Developmen
t
Walkability
and Active
Transportati
on
Reduced Car
Dependence
Affordable
Housing and
Social Equity
Economic
Developmen
t
Public Space
and
Community
Integration
Enhanced
Mobility and
Accessibility

38. Health and Well-
being
•TOD promotes active
lifestyles by encouraging
encouraging walking
and cycling as viable
transportation options.
Accessible sidewalks,
bike lanes, and
pedestrian-friendly
infrastructure improve
physical activity levels
and promote better
health outcomes.
Preservation of
Greenfield Land
•TOD focuses on utilizing
existing urban areas and
underutilized land near
transit stations. By
intensifying
development in these
areas, it helps preserve
valuable greenfield land
on the outskirts of the
metropolitan region.
Transit
Infrastructure
Investment
•TOD can catalyze
investment in public
transportation
infrastructure. As the
demand for transit
services increases in
TOD areas, it incentivizes
incentivizes
governments and
transportation
authorities to improve
and expand transit
systems. .
Congestion
Reduction
•the compact and mixed-
use development
patterns of TOD help
reduce traffic congestion
congestion in
metropolitan areas. By
providing convenient
access to public
transportation, people
are encouraged to use
transit instead of driving
alone, leading to fewer
cars on the road and
smoother traffic flow.
Disaster Resilience
•Compact and connected
TOD communities are
more resilient to natural
disasters and other
emergencies. The
proximity of amenities
and services to transit
stations ensures better
access to essential
resources during crises.
Cultural and Social
Vibrancy
•Transit-oriented
development fosters
vibrant and diverse
neighborhoods where
people from different
backgrounds and
income levels can live
and interact. The
proximity of residents
and the mix of uses in
TOD areas create
opportunities for
cultural exchange, social
interaction, and the
formation of strong
community bonds.
Improved Air
Quality
•By reducing private
vehicle usage and
promoting public
transportation, TOD
helps improve air quality
quality in metropolitan
areas. Fewer cars on the
road result in reduced
emissions of pollutants,
such as carbon dioxide
and nitrogen oxides,
leading to cleaner and
healthier air for
residents
Accessibility for All
•TOD emphasizes
universal accessibility,
ensuring that transit
stations, sidewalks, and
buildings are designed
to accommodate people
with disabilities. This
promotes inclusivity and
allows individuals with
mobility challenges to
access transportation
and participate fully in
the community.

39. Inner city in metropolitan cities-
issues and problems
The inner city areas of metropolitan cities often face specific
issues and problems due to factors such as historical
development patterns, socioeconomic disparities, and urban
decay. Addressing the issues and problems faced by the
inner city areas of metropolitan cities requires
comprehensive strategies that involve community
engagement, urban revitalization, equitable policies, and
investments in education, infrastructure, and economic
development. It is crucial to prioritize social inclusion,
affordable housing, job creation, and the provision of
essential services to foster sustainable and thriving
communities within the inner city.

40. Urban Decay and Deterioration:
Many inner city areas suffer from physical decay, with dilapidated buildings, vacant lots, and neglected
infrastructure. Historical disinvestment, economic decline, and lack of maintenance contribute to the physical
deterioration of the built environment.

41. Poverty and Socioeconomic Disparities:
Inner city areas tend to have higher poverty rates and concentrated pockets of socioeconomic
disadvantage. Limited access to quality education, healthcare, employment opportunities, and
basic services perpetuates cycles of poverty and social inequality.

42. Crime and Safety Concerns:
Inner city areas often experience higher crime rates and safety concerns compared to other
parts of the city. Factors such as socioeconomic disadvantage, drug-related activities, and
social disorganization contribute to crime, leading to a sense of insecurity among residents

43. Limited Access to Affordable Housing:
The inner city areas may struggle with affordable housing options, as rising property prices and
gentrification push housing costs beyond the reach of low-income residents. This can lead to
housing instability, overcrowding, and homelessness.

44. Inadequate Infrastructure and Services:
Inner city areas may lack essential infrastructure and services, such as reliable public
transportation, quality schools, healthcare facilities, parks, and recreational spaces. This limits
residents' access to basic amenities and opportunities for personal and community development.

45. Gentrification and Displacement:
The process of gentrification can lead to the displacement of long-term residents in inner city areas. As
wealthier residents move in and property values rise, lower-income individuals and communities are often
forced to relocate, resulting in the loss of community cohesion and cultural identity.

46. Environmental Challenges:
Inner city areas may face environmental issues such as pollution, inadequate green spaces, and
limited access to clean air and water. Proximity to industrial zones, lack of environmental
regulations, and the presence of brownfield sites can contribute to environmental degradation and
health risks for residents.

47. Limited Economic Opportunities:
Inner city areas may struggle with limited job opportunities and economic development, leading
to higher unemployment rates and economic inequality. The lack of investment, inadequate
infrastructure for businesses, and skills gaps among residents contribute to the economic
challenges faced by the community.

48. Education Disparities:
Inner city schools often face significant challenges, including underfunding, overcrowding, and a
lack of resources. These educational disparities result in lower academic achievement levels,
limited opportunities for students, and perpetuation of socioeconomic inequality.

49. Social Exclusion and Segregation:
Inner city areas can experience social exclusion and segregation, with marginalized communities
facing limited access to resources, opportunities, and social networks. This exacerbates social
divisions and hampers social mobility and cohesion within the community.

50. Your best quote that reflects your
approach… “It’s one small step for
man, one giant leap for mankind.”
- NEIL ARMSTRONG