This document outlines the features and functions of an employee management system created by AZ DATAMALL (P) Ltd. The system allows users to authenticate, change passwords, enter employee records and designations, substitutions, salary increments, advance salaries, attendance, and leaves. It generates reports on employee information, details, attendance, and salaries. The owner can create new users for the system.
We will discuss the following: Sorting Algorithms, Counting Sort, Radix Sort, Merge Sort.Algorithms, Time Complexity & Space Complexity, Algorithm vs Pseudocode, Some Algorithm Types, Programming Languages, Python, Anaconda.
A circular queue is a fixed size data structure that follows FIFO (first in, first out) principles. Elements are added to the rear of the queue and removed from the front. When the rear reaches the end, it wraps around to the beginning so the queue space is used efficiently. Common circular queue operations include enqueue to add an element, dequeue to remove an element, and display to output all elements.
Quicksort is a divide and conquer sorting algorithm that works by partitioning an array around a pivot value. It then recursively sorts the sub-arrays on each side. The key steps are: 1) Choose a pivot element to split the array into left and right halves, with all elements on the left being less than the pivot and all on the right being greater; 2) Recursively quicksort the left and right halves; 3) Combine the now-sorted left and right halves into a fully sorted array. The example demonstrates quicksorting an array of 6 elements by repeatedly partitioning around a pivot until the entire array is sorted.
The document discusses algorithms for finding order statistics like the median in a list of numbers. It presents a randomized selection algorithm that finds the ith smallest element in expected linear time O(n) by using a randomized partition like in quicksort. It also describes a deterministic selection algorithm that finds the ith element in worst-case linear time O(n) by partitioning the list around the median of medians. Finding the median can then be used to sort in linear time by recursively finding order statistics.
This document describes a proposed online student feedback system. The system would allow students to provide feedback through a web-based portal. It would have modules for students, heads of department, and administrators. The objectives are to create an easy and quick feedback system with true feedback. Some advantages listed are reducing time, easy management of the process, and a user-friendly interface. The document provides details on the existing manual system, proposed system architecture, software and hardware requirements, and conclusions. It also discusses future enhancements that could be made.
Architectural Styles and Case Studies, Software architecture ,unit–2Sudarshan Dhondaley
Architectural styles; Pipes and filters; Data abstraction and object-oriented organization; Event-based, implicit invocation; Layered systems; Repositories; Interpreters; Process control; Other familiar architectures; Heterogeneous architectures. Case Studies: Keyword in Context; Instrumentation software; Mobile robotics; Cruise control; three vignettes in mixed style.
This document outlines the features and functions of an employee management system created by AZ DATAMALL (P) Ltd. The system allows users to authenticate, change passwords, enter employee records and designations, substitutions, salary increments, advance salaries, attendance, and leaves. It generates reports on employee information, details, attendance, and salaries. The owner can create new users for the system.
We will discuss the following: Sorting Algorithms, Counting Sort, Radix Sort, Merge Sort.Algorithms, Time Complexity & Space Complexity, Algorithm vs Pseudocode, Some Algorithm Types, Programming Languages, Python, Anaconda.
A circular queue is a fixed size data structure that follows FIFO (first in, first out) principles. Elements are added to the rear of the queue and removed from the front. When the rear reaches the end, it wraps around to the beginning so the queue space is used efficiently. Common circular queue operations include enqueue to add an element, dequeue to remove an element, and display to output all elements.
Quicksort is a divide and conquer sorting algorithm that works by partitioning an array around a pivot value. It then recursively sorts the sub-arrays on each side. The key steps are: 1) Choose a pivot element to split the array into left and right halves, with all elements on the left being less than the pivot and all on the right being greater; 2) Recursively quicksort the left and right halves; 3) Combine the now-sorted left and right halves into a fully sorted array. The example demonstrates quicksorting an array of 6 elements by repeatedly partitioning around a pivot until the entire array is sorted.
The document discusses algorithms for finding order statistics like the median in a list of numbers. It presents a randomized selection algorithm that finds the ith smallest element in expected linear time O(n) by using a randomized partition like in quicksort. It also describes a deterministic selection algorithm that finds the ith element in worst-case linear time O(n) by partitioning the list around the median of medians. Finding the median can then be used to sort in linear time by recursively finding order statistics.
This document describes a proposed online student feedback system. The system would allow students to provide feedback through a web-based portal. It would have modules for students, heads of department, and administrators. The objectives are to create an easy and quick feedback system with true feedback. Some advantages listed are reducing time, easy management of the process, and a user-friendly interface. The document provides details on the existing manual system, proposed system architecture, software and hardware requirements, and conclusions. It also discusses future enhancements that could be made.
Architectural Styles and Case Studies, Software architecture ,unit–2Sudarshan Dhondaley
Architectural styles; Pipes and filters; Data abstraction and object-oriented organization; Event-based, implicit invocation; Layered systems; Repositories; Interpreters; Process control; Other familiar architectures; Heterogeneous architectures. Case Studies: Keyword in Context; Instrumentation software; Mobile robotics; Cruise control; three vignettes in mixed style.
The document discusses state modeling and state diagrams. It defines states as representations of intervals of time that describe an object's behavioral condition. Events trigger transitions between states. A state diagram uses a graph to represent an object's states and the transitions between them caused by events. It specifies the object's response to input events over time. The document provides examples of how to notationally represent states, transitions, events, and other elements in a state diagram.
This document discusses priority queues. It defines a priority queue as a queue where insertion and deletion are based on some priority property. Items with higher priority are removed before lower priority items. There are two main types: ascending priority queues remove the smallest item, while descending priority queues remove the largest item. Priority queues are useful for scheduling jobs in operating systems, where real-time jobs have highest priority and are scheduled first. They are also used in network communication to manage limited bandwidth.
Formal Specification in Software Engineering SE9koolkampus
This document discusses formal specification techniques for software. It describes algebraic techniques for specifying interfaces as abstract data types and model-based techniques for specifying system behavior. Algebraic specifications define operations and their relationships, while model-based specifications represent the system state using mathematical constructs like sets and sequences. Formal specification finds errors earlier and reduces rework, though it requires more upfront effort. The document also provides an example of formally specifying an air traffic control system and insulin pump.
Shellsort is a sorting algorithm invented by Donald Shell in 1959 that was the first to break the quadratic time barrier of simpler sorting algorithms like insertion sort. It works by sorting elements with increasing proximity over multiple passes rather than just adjacent elements. The algorithm uses an increment sequence to determine the spacing between elements to compare and sort in each pass until the final pass sorts adjacent elements like an insertion sort. While faster than older quadratic algorithms, shellsort is still outperformed by more efficient algorithms like merge, heap, and quicksort for larger data sets.
Oracle 9i is a client/server database management system based on the relational data model. It handles failures well through transaction logging and allows administrators to manage users and databases through administrative tools. SQL*Plus provides an interactive interface for writing and executing SQL statements against Oracle databases, while PL/SQL adds procedural programming capabilities. Common SQL statements retrieve, manipulate, define and control database objects and transactions.
The document provides documentation for an online examination system. It discusses the need for the system to automate the exam process for educational institutions and reduce paperwork. It outlines the functional requirements including features for administrators to create exams and monitor results and features for students to register and take exams. Diagrams are provided that illustrate the entity relationship model and data flow between system components at different levels of abstraction.
Database normalization is the process of refining the data in accordance with a series of normal forms. This is done to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. This process divides large tables into small tables and links them using relationships.
Here is the link of full article: https://www.support.dbagenesis.com/post/database-normalization
In this chapter we have to Learn Graph Terminologies, Types of Graph, Representation of Graph, Traversal of Graph BFS and DFS. Its Application Use Advantages and Disadvantages
The document provides information on data flow diagrams (DFDs), including how to construct multi-level DFDs through context diagrams, level 0 diagrams, and lower level diagrams. It gives steps for developing DFDs, including identifying external entities, major processes, and data flows. Examples are provided to demonstrate a DFD for a home security system and a lemonade stand business.
This document defines and explains the key elements of a sequence diagram:
- Sequence diagrams show the interactions between objects through messages over time.
- Objects are represented by vertical lifelines and may send/receive synchronous, asynchronous, reflexive, return, create, and destroy messages.
- Activation bars on lifelines indicate when an object is active.
- Time progresses downward on the diagram, showing the order of messages.
- Events mark specific points of interaction like sending and receiving messages.
Employee Management System Project PPT is a useful Materials for Engineering students who completed their Project on this topic. Employee Management System is a simple and attractive Presentation.
Database normalization is the process of organizing data in tables to minimize redundancy and dependency. It involves splitting tables into smaller tables and defining relationships between them using primary and foreign keys. There are various normal forms that quantify how normalized a database is, with third normal form being sufficient for most applications. Edgar Codd first proposed normalization and the first normal form, which requires that tables have a primary key and each attribute depend on the key. Higher normal forms like second and third further reduce redundancy between columns and tables.
The document provides an overview of the database design for Air India. It includes assumptions, initial and final ER diagrams, tables with functional dependencies, and sample SQL queries to demonstrate basic operations on the database. The database design consists of 10 normalized tables to store information about countries, states, contacts, passengers, flight schedules, routes, airfares, aircrafts and transactions. The document describes the tables, relationships between them and provides examples of queries to retrieve flight details, passenger information and perform analytics on bookings and sales.
A queue is a non-primitive linear data structure that follows the FIFO (first-in, first-out) principle. Elements are added to the rear of the queue and removed from the front. Common operations on a queue include insertion (enqueue) and deletion (dequeue). Queues have many real-world applications like waiting in lines and job scheduling. They can be represented using arrays or linked lists.
The document discusses normalization in database design. Normalization is the process of organizing data to avoid redundancy and dependency. It involves splitting tables and restructuring relationships between tables. The document outlines various normal forms including 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF and 5NF and provides examples to illustrate how to normalize tables to conform to each form.
This project is aimed at developing an online application for the College Management System Dept. of the college. The system is an online application that can be accessed throughout the organization and outside as well with proper login provided. This system can be used as an application for the TPO of the college to manage the student information with regards to placement and college managing. The college management and staff logging should be able to upload their information in the form of a CV and student record and college department record uploaded. Visitor’s college staff representatives logging in may also access/search any information put up by Students.
John von Neumann invented the merge sort algorithm in 1945. Merge sort follows the divide and conquer paradigm by dividing the unsorted list into halves, recursively sorting each half through merging, and then merging the sorted halves back into a single sorted list. The time complexity of merge sort is O(n log n) in all cases (best, average, worst) due to its divide and conquer approach, while its space complexity is O(n) to store the temporary merged list.
The document discusses three sorting algorithms: bubble sort, selection sort, and insertion sort. Bubble sort works by repeatedly swapping adjacent elements that are in the wrong order. Selection sort finds the minimum element and swaps it into the sorted portion of the array. Insertion sort inserts elements into the sorted portion of the array, swapping as needed to put the element in the correct position. Both selection sort and insertion sort have a time complexity of O(n^2) in the worst case.
The document discusses database normalization. It defines normalization as a process that makes data structures efficient by eliminating redundancy and inconsistencies. The key goals of normalization are to control redundancy, ensure data consistency, and allow complex queries. The document outlines the various normal forms including 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF and examples of how to normalize tables to each form by removing functional dependencies on non-key attributes.
Programming in Java: Object and Classes. Last delivered in 2013. All educational material listed or linked to on these pages in relation to King's College London may be provided for reference only, and therefore does not necessarily reflect the current course content.
The document discusses state modeling and state diagrams. It defines states as representations of intervals of time that describe an object's behavioral condition. Events trigger transitions between states. A state diagram uses a graph to represent an object's states and the transitions between them caused by events. It specifies the object's response to input events over time. The document provides examples of how to notationally represent states, transitions, events, and other elements in a state diagram.
This document discusses priority queues. It defines a priority queue as a queue where insertion and deletion are based on some priority property. Items with higher priority are removed before lower priority items. There are two main types: ascending priority queues remove the smallest item, while descending priority queues remove the largest item. Priority queues are useful for scheduling jobs in operating systems, where real-time jobs have highest priority and are scheduled first. They are also used in network communication to manage limited bandwidth.
Formal Specification in Software Engineering SE9koolkampus
This document discusses formal specification techniques for software. It describes algebraic techniques for specifying interfaces as abstract data types and model-based techniques for specifying system behavior. Algebraic specifications define operations and their relationships, while model-based specifications represent the system state using mathematical constructs like sets and sequences. Formal specification finds errors earlier and reduces rework, though it requires more upfront effort. The document also provides an example of formally specifying an air traffic control system and insulin pump.
Shellsort is a sorting algorithm invented by Donald Shell in 1959 that was the first to break the quadratic time barrier of simpler sorting algorithms like insertion sort. It works by sorting elements with increasing proximity over multiple passes rather than just adjacent elements. The algorithm uses an increment sequence to determine the spacing between elements to compare and sort in each pass until the final pass sorts adjacent elements like an insertion sort. While faster than older quadratic algorithms, shellsort is still outperformed by more efficient algorithms like merge, heap, and quicksort for larger data sets.
Oracle 9i is a client/server database management system based on the relational data model. It handles failures well through transaction logging and allows administrators to manage users and databases through administrative tools. SQL*Plus provides an interactive interface for writing and executing SQL statements against Oracle databases, while PL/SQL adds procedural programming capabilities. Common SQL statements retrieve, manipulate, define and control database objects and transactions.
The document provides documentation for an online examination system. It discusses the need for the system to automate the exam process for educational institutions and reduce paperwork. It outlines the functional requirements including features for administrators to create exams and monitor results and features for students to register and take exams. Diagrams are provided that illustrate the entity relationship model and data flow between system components at different levels of abstraction.
Database normalization is the process of refining the data in accordance with a series of normal forms. This is done to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. This process divides large tables into small tables and links them using relationships.
Here is the link of full article: https://www.support.dbagenesis.com/post/database-normalization
In this chapter we have to Learn Graph Terminologies, Types of Graph, Representation of Graph, Traversal of Graph BFS and DFS. Its Application Use Advantages and Disadvantages
The document provides information on data flow diagrams (DFDs), including how to construct multi-level DFDs through context diagrams, level 0 diagrams, and lower level diagrams. It gives steps for developing DFDs, including identifying external entities, major processes, and data flows. Examples are provided to demonstrate a DFD for a home security system and a lemonade stand business.
This document defines and explains the key elements of a sequence diagram:
- Sequence diagrams show the interactions between objects through messages over time.
- Objects are represented by vertical lifelines and may send/receive synchronous, asynchronous, reflexive, return, create, and destroy messages.
- Activation bars on lifelines indicate when an object is active.
- Time progresses downward on the diagram, showing the order of messages.
- Events mark specific points of interaction like sending and receiving messages.
Employee Management System Project PPT is a useful Materials for Engineering students who completed their Project on this topic. Employee Management System is a simple and attractive Presentation.
Database normalization is the process of organizing data in tables to minimize redundancy and dependency. It involves splitting tables into smaller tables and defining relationships between them using primary and foreign keys. There are various normal forms that quantify how normalized a database is, with third normal form being sufficient for most applications. Edgar Codd first proposed normalization and the first normal form, which requires that tables have a primary key and each attribute depend on the key. Higher normal forms like second and third further reduce redundancy between columns and tables.
The document provides an overview of the database design for Air India. It includes assumptions, initial and final ER diagrams, tables with functional dependencies, and sample SQL queries to demonstrate basic operations on the database. The database design consists of 10 normalized tables to store information about countries, states, contacts, passengers, flight schedules, routes, airfares, aircrafts and transactions. The document describes the tables, relationships between them and provides examples of queries to retrieve flight details, passenger information and perform analytics on bookings and sales.
A queue is a non-primitive linear data structure that follows the FIFO (first-in, first-out) principle. Elements are added to the rear of the queue and removed from the front. Common operations on a queue include insertion (enqueue) and deletion (dequeue). Queues have many real-world applications like waiting in lines and job scheduling. They can be represented using arrays or linked lists.
The document discusses normalization in database design. Normalization is the process of organizing data to avoid redundancy and dependency. It involves splitting tables and restructuring relationships between tables. The document outlines various normal forms including 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF and 5NF and provides examples to illustrate how to normalize tables to conform to each form.
This project is aimed at developing an online application for the College Management System Dept. of the college. The system is an online application that can be accessed throughout the organization and outside as well with proper login provided. This system can be used as an application for the TPO of the college to manage the student information with regards to placement and college managing. The college management and staff logging should be able to upload their information in the form of a CV and student record and college department record uploaded. Visitor’s college staff representatives logging in may also access/search any information put up by Students.
John von Neumann invented the merge sort algorithm in 1945. Merge sort follows the divide and conquer paradigm by dividing the unsorted list into halves, recursively sorting each half through merging, and then merging the sorted halves back into a single sorted list. The time complexity of merge sort is O(n log n) in all cases (best, average, worst) due to its divide and conquer approach, while its space complexity is O(n) to store the temporary merged list.
The document discusses three sorting algorithms: bubble sort, selection sort, and insertion sort. Bubble sort works by repeatedly swapping adjacent elements that are in the wrong order. Selection sort finds the minimum element and swaps it into the sorted portion of the array. Insertion sort inserts elements into the sorted portion of the array, swapping as needed to put the element in the correct position. Both selection sort and insertion sort have a time complexity of O(n^2) in the worst case.
The document discusses database normalization. It defines normalization as a process that makes data structures efficient by eliminating redundancy and inconsistencies. The key goals of normalization are to control redundancy, ensure data consistency, and allow complex queries. The document outlines the various normal forms including 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF and examples of how to normalize tables to each form by removing functional dependencies on non-key attributes.
Programming in Java: Object and Classes. Last delivered in 2013. All educational material listed or linked to on these pages in relation to King's College London may be provided for reference only, and therefore does not necessarily reflect the current course content.
Lecture 2 - Relational Model and Terminology.pptxMohamedShamil11
The document defines key terms and concepts in the relational database model including relations, attributes, tuples, domains, keys, integrity constraints, and views. It explains that a relation is a table with columns and rows, an attribute is a named column, and a tuple is a row. It describes the different types of keys such as candidate keys and foreign keys. It also discusses entity integrity, referential integrity, and the purpose of views in providing security and customization.
The document provides an overview of the three-level ANSI-SPARC architecture for relational database management systems (RDBMS). It describes the external, conceptual, and internal levels of the architecture and how they provide logical and physical data independence. Keys such as primary keys, foreign keys, and alternate keys are also discussed as they relate to the relational data structure and ensuring data integrity across tables.
Database normalization is the process of structuring a relational database in accordance with a series of so-called normal forms in order to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. It was first proposed by Edgar F. Codd as part of his relational model.
Agenda
What Is Normalization?
Why We Use Normalization?
Various Levels Of Normalization
Any Tools For Generate Normalization?
By Harsiddhi Thakkar
If you have any query
Contact me on : harsiddhithakkar94@gmail.com
ER diagram slides for datanase stujdy-1.pdfSadiaSharmin40
The document discusses database schema design using the entity-relationship (ER) model. It describes the database design process, which involves requirements analysis, conceptual design, and implementation including logical and physical design. The conceptual design phase develops a high-level description of the database using a technique like ER modeling. ER modeling represents entities, entity sets, attributes, relationships, and keys graphically. Relationships associate entities and define how they are related. The conceptual schema and functional requirements are then implemented through logical and physical database design.
Value Analysis and Value Engineering -Function & Evaluation of FunctionJayaprakash Manickaraj
VAVE is a wide topic and i tried to go depth in understanding function and evaluating it. Most of the topic extracted from L.D Miles Book 'Techniques of value Analysis and Engineering
The document provides an outline for a lesson on commercial correspondence. It discusses the layout of business letters and how to write various types of business letters and correspondence, including enquiries, replies, quotations, offers, orders, and complaints. It provides examples of business letter layout and the functions of different parts of a business letter. It also gives exercises for students to practice writing business letters and correspondence.
This talk from RailsConf 2019 describes how our team made deep changes to the data model of our production system over a period of 2.5 years.
Changing your data model is hard. Taking care of existing data requires caution. Exploring and testing possible solutions can be slow. Your new data model may require data completeness or correctness that hasn't been enforced for the existing data.
To manage the risk and minimize disruption to the product roadmap, we broke the effort into four stages, each with its own distinct challenges. I'll describe our rationale, process ... and the lessons we learned along the way.
Customer Feedback: the missing piece of the Agile puzzleskierkowski
The document provides 8 rules and 10 mechanisms for building products customers want. The 8 rules are: 1) Your opinion is wrong, 2) Don't ask what people want, 3) Fake it till you make it, 4) Make it cheap and throw it out, 5) Scalability is not a problem, 6) Overcommit and deliver, 7) Don't bother with feature lists, 8) Not all users are customers. The 10 mechanisms are ways to understand customer needs and include outstanding support, surveys, interviews, and analytics tools.
The seven steps of the machine learning workflow are: 1) get more data, 2) ask a sharp question, 3) add data to a table, 4) check for quality, 5) transform features, 6) answer the question, and 7) use the answer. The goal is to derive answers to business challenges by analyzing data, transforming features for better modeling, getting responses to questions asked, and applying the results.
10 Ways to Get More from Your Pardot SolutionPardot
Ready to take your Pardot solution to the next level? Learn to use standard functionality at an expert level, employ advanced features that’ll deliver greater ROI, and discover new tools and connectors that’ll give your campaigns a boost. Use workshop time to start implementing real-life solutions immediately.
This document provides an introduction to conceptual modeling in database design. It discusses the stages of database design including data analysis, conceptual design, logical design, and physical design. The conceptual and logical models are explained using an example of a university database. Key aspects of conceptual modeling using the entity-relationship model are covered, including entities, attributes, relationships, keys, participation constraints, and weak/strong entities. Design principles are presented for reducing redundancy and choosing between entities and attributes.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation.
Normalization is a logical database design method that minimizes data redundancy and reduces design flaws. It involves applying normal forms like 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF to break large tables into smaller subsets. The normal forms improve data integrity by preventing anomalies like insertion, update, and deletion anomalies. Applying the normal forms can result in relations that are in first, second, and third normal form, but additional steps may be needed to attain Boyce-Codd normal form, which further reduces anomalies from overlapping candidate keys.
Requirements modeling involves creating models during requirements analysis to understand current systems or business processes being automated and how users will interact with a new system. It helps with elicitation, validation, and communication of requirements. Common tools for requirements modeling include use cases, state diagrams, UI mockups, storyboards, and prototypes.
Define requirements modeling as representing the customers' needs and the problem domain using models to facilitate understanding between stakeholders.
Explain four roles of requirements modeling as:
1) Guiding elicitation by helping determine questions to ask and uncover hidden requirements
2) Providing progress measures by ensuring model completeness indicates elicitation is complete
3) Hel
The document discusses data modeling and entity relationship diagrams. It defines data modeling as the process of defining and analyzing data requirements to support business processes. It describes the different types of data models including conceptual, logical, and physical models. It also explains the key components of entity relationship diagrams including entities, attributes, relationships, cardinality, and notation. The document provides an example of using an ERD to model a scenario involving departments, supervisors, employees, and projects.
This document discusses program development and outlines a lesson on object-oriented programming concepts. It covers the four basic activities of program development: establishing requirements, creating a design, implementing code, and testing. It then outlines topics to be covered in the lesson including method design, creating objects, loop statements, classes and objects, and more. Examples are provided of creating classes to represent dice and students. The use of for loops is demonstrated through examples printing weekdays, multiples of a number, and a triangle of asterisks.
The document discusses Data Mining Query Language (DMQL), which is based on SQL and allows users to define data mining tasks. DMQL can be used to specify data mining primitives and define data warehouses and data marts. The syntax of DMQL is presented, including commands to use a database or data warehouse, specify attributes or dimensions, and filter from relations using conditions. An example DMQL query is provided to select from multiple tables and group results by date. References on data warehousing, OLAP, and data mining concepts are also listed.
This document discusses classification and prediction in data analysis. It defines classification as predicting categorical class labels, such as predicting if a loan applicant is risky or safe. Prediction predicts continuous numeric values, such as predicting how much a customer will spend. The document provides examples of classification, including a bank predicting loan risk and a company predicting computer purchases. It also provides an example of prediction, where a company predicts customer spending. It then discusses how classification works, including building a classifier model from training data and using the model to classify new data. Finally, it discusses decision tree induction for classification and the k-means algorithm.
Association rule mining is used to find interesting relationships among data items in large datasets. It can help with business decision making by analyzing customer purchasing patterns. For example, market basket analysis looks at what items are frequently bought together. Association rules use support and confidence metrics, where support is the probability an itemset occurs and confidence is the probability that a rule is correct. The Apriori algorithm is commonly used to generate association rules by first finding frequent itemsets that meet a minimum support threshold across multiple passes of the data. It then generates rules from those itemsets if they meet a minimum confidence. Association rule mining has various applications and can provide useful insights but also has computational limitations.
Types of database processing,OLTP VS Data Warehouses(OLAP), Subject-oriented
Integrated
Time-variant
Non-volatile,
Functionalities of Data Warehouse,Roll-Up(Consolidation),
Drill-down,
Slicing,
Dicing,
Pivot,
KDD Process,Application of Data Mining
Data Warehouse Physical Design,Physical Data Model, Tablespaces, Integrity Constraints, ETL (Extract-Transform-Load) ,OLAP Server Architectures, MOLAP vs. ROLAP, Distributed Data Warehouse ,
This document discusses various concepts in data warehouse logical design including data marts, types of data marts (dependent, independent, hybrid), star schemas, snowflake schemas, and fact constellation schemas. It defines each concept and provides examples to illustrate them. Dependent data marts are created from an existing data warehouse, independent data marts are stand-alone without a data warehouse, and hybrid data marts combine data from a warehouse and other sources. Star schemas have one table for each dimension that joins to a central fact table, while snowflake schemas have normalized dimension tables. Fact constellation schemas have multiple fact tables that share dimension tables.
The document defines data mining as extracting useful information from large datasets. It discusses two main types of data mining tasks: descriptive tasks like frequent pattern mining and classification/prediction tasks like decision trees. Several data mining techniques are covered, including association, classification, clustering, prediction, sequential patterns, and decision trees. Real-world applications of data mining are also outlined, such as market basket analysis, fraud detection, healthcare, education, and CRM.
The document discusses minterms, maxterms, and their representation using shorthand notation in digital logic. It also covers the steps to obtain the shorthand notation for minterms and maxterms. Standard forms such as SOP and POS are introduced along with methods to simplify boolean functions into canonical forms using Karnaugh maps. The implementation of boolean functions using NAND and NOR gates is also described through examples.
Sequential circuits are circuits whose outputs depend not only on present inputs but also on past inputs or states. There are two types: synchronous use a clock signal to synchronize state changes, asynchronous can change state at any time. Common memory elements are flip-flops including RS, D, JK, and T flip-flops. The master-slave flip-flop construction using two flip-flops avoids unpredictable states by separating the sampling and output functions.
This document discusses combinational logic circuits using MSI (Medium Scale Integration) and LSI (Large Scale Integration) components. It covers various MSI components like adders, decoders, encoders, multiplexers that are used as basic building blocks. Specific circuits discussed include 4-bit parallel adder, BCD adder, magnitude comparator, priority encoder, octal to binary encoder, decoder and their applications in implementing Boolean functions using multiplexers.
This document summarizes key concepts about combinational logic circuits. It defines combinational logic as circuits whose outputs depend only on the current inputs, in contrast to sequential logic which also depends on prior inputs. Common combinational circuits are described like half and full adders used for arithmetic, as well as decoders. The design process for combinational circuits is outlined involving specification, formulation, optimization and technology mapping. Implementation of functions using NAND and NOR gates is also discussed.
This document discusses Boolean algebra and logic gates. It defines Boolean algebra as a mathematical system using two values, typically true/false or 1/0. Boolean expressions are created using common operators like AND, OR, and NOT. Truth tables define the outputs of these operators. Logic gates are physical implementations of Boolean operators, including AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates. Laws like De Morgan's theorem and the properties of universal gates like NAND and NOR are also covered.
Digital systems process and store information in digital form using discrete values, usually binary digits 0 and 1. A computer manipulates information in binary form using transistors in on or off states. Digital systems are found in a wide range of applications and have advantages over analog systems like lower cost, greater reliability, and flexibility. Digital computers represent numbers, instructions, and data using binary numbers and perform arithmetic and logical operations on them.
Introduction to Electronic Commerce: Introduction of commerce, Electronic
commerce framework, electronic commerce and media convergence, the anatomy
of e-commerce application,The Network for Electronic Commerce: Need of network, market forces
influencing the I-way, components of I-way, network access equipment, and
global information distribution network.
The Internet as a Network Infrastructure: Introduction, the Internet terminology,
NSFNET: Architecture and Components, Internet governance: The Internet
Society.
This document discusses evaluating software development through testing functionality, efficiency, reliability, and usability. Evaluation ensures software meets high standards and improves productivity. Techniques like questionnaires, observations, and interviews identify any problems. Criteria for evaluation includes information provided, interaction effectiveness, and technical appropriateness. Testing functionality checks commands work correctly, while efficiency examines consistent performance and automation. Reliability verifies expected behavior and security. Usability considers ease of use, navigation, help, and readability. Successful interaction has no weaknesses or improvement recommendations. Suggested enhancements may increase efficiency or reliability.
This document discusses various techniques for working with macros in Microsoft Excel, including reading the code generated by macros, using absolute and relative cell references in macros, assigning icons to run macros, automating printing with a macro, adding digital signatures to macros, and references for further reading on the topic. Specific steps are outlined for creating macros that format cells as currency, bold a column, and automate printing. The importance of examining the Visual Basic code that macros generate is also emphasized.
Macros can automate tasks in Excel like data entry, validation, selection, formatting, and navigation. Macros are created by recording user actions or writing VBA code. To record a macro, the recorder is turned on, the macro is named and saved, then actions are performed and recorded. Recorded macros can then be run to automate the recorded tasks. Common uses of macros include formatting templates, entering dates and times, validating user input, and displaying messages and feedback. Key objects and statements in VBA include Range, Variables, If/Then, and loops for programming macros.
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4. Answer
• Because a null value, being unknown, might be the same as the value in the
primary key of another tuple.
5. Properties of a Relation
• Relation Named
• Atomic values in cells
• Attribute Named
• Attribute value drawn from a domain
• No duplicate tuples (rows)
• No significance to order of tuples
• No significance to order of attributes
6. Class Record (Is This a Relation? )
Class Code Instrument Taught Teachers No of Instruments
Rented
2 Saxophone Marcus Smith 10
6 Trumpet Ajay Singh
Sonny Muller
20
7 Guitar Farhad Khan 10
9 Guitar Farhad Khan
Tommy Jones
23
1 Drums Tommy Jones 5
7. Activity - Is This a Relation?
• It has a name which is unique within the relational schema - Yes
• Each cell of a relation contains exactly one value - No
• Each attribute has a name – YES
• Each tuple is unique - YES
• The order of attributes is insignificant – YES
• The order of tuples is insignificant - YES
8. Class Record – A Relation
Class Code Instrument Taught Teachers No of Instruments
Rented
2 Saxophone Marcus Smith 10
6 Trumpet Ajay Singh 20
6 Trumpet Sonny Muller 20
7 Guitar Farhad Khan 10
9 Guitar Farhad Khan 23
9 Guitar Tommy Jones 23
1 Drums Tommy Jones 5
9. Activity - Is This a Relation?
Student Name Modules Course
Guy Smith Med1 Medieval History 1
Med2 Medieval History 2
TCE Twentieth Century
History
Sarah Anusiem
12 New Street, Lagos
OS Operating Systems
NET Networks
Computing
10. Activity - Is This a Relation?
• It has a name which is unique within the relational schema - No
• Each cell of a relation contains exactly one value - No
• Each attribute has a name – YES
• Each tuple is unique - YES
• The order of attributes is insignificant – YES
• The order of tuples is insignificant - YES
11. Now a Relation
Student Name Address Modules Course
Guy Smith Med1 Medieval History 1 History
Guy Smith Med2 Medieval History 2 History
Guy Smith TCE Twentieth Century History
Sarah Anusiem 12 New Street,
Lagos
OS Operating Systems Computing
Sarah Anusiem 12 New Street,
Lagos
NET Networks Computing
12. Functional Dependency
Student ID First Name Surname
9901 John Dacus
9902 Satpal Singh
9922 Jagpal Singh
9911 John Smith
Students
• For any Student ID, there is one first name and one surname, So, First Name
and Surname are functionally dependent on Student ID. We can also say
Student ID functionally determines First Name and Surname.
• Student ID -> First Name, but not the reverse
• Student ID -> Surname
13. Partial Dependency
• When an non-key attribute is determined by a part, but not the whole,
of a composite primary key. This kind of functional dependency is
known as partial dependency.
• There are two non-key fields : marks and subject_name.
• If you know just student_id, can you determine marks?
• If you know just subject_id, can you determine marks?
• So, marks is partially dependent on student_id and subject_id.
student_id subject_id marks subject_name
1 1 80 Database
2 1 70 Database
1 2 90 Java
17. Activity: Delete Anomalies
Student ID Student Name Activity Fee
9901 Binay Basketball 200
9902 Shyam Football 300
9922 Sitaram Cricket 500
9811 Prashant Football 300
• What information do we lose if Binay quits Basketball?
• We would lose the price of ‘Basketball’.
• This is the deletion anomaly that occur when relations are not fully
normalized.
• When you delete some information and lose valuable related information
at the same time.
18. Insert Anomalies
• If we want to record a new activity, but no one has yet taken it. Can
we insert this information?
• We cannot do so; we need a student ID because the student ID is part
of the primary key and therefore cannot be null.
• This is an insert anomaly.
19. Update Anomalies
• If we wanted to change the cost of football to ‘500’, we would have to
do it for every tuple where someone was playing football .
• Any change made to your data will require you to scan all records to
make the change. This is called the update anomaly.
20. Customer Order Sheet for an Art Supplier
Customer Number: 37
Customer Name: Jagpal Singh
Customer Type Code: RC
Customer Type Description: Retail Customer
Item Number Item Name Supplier ID Price Supplier Name Quantity
099 Basic Paint Set S1 £3 Smith and Co 1
0100 Sable Brush Set S2 £3.50 Acro 1
0101 Extended Colour
Set
S1 £3.75 Smith and Co 3
098 Metallic Paint Set S1 £3.99 Smith and Co 1
078 Mixed Brush Set S2 £3.99 Acro 2
Customer Order Sheet for Art Supply
Shop
21. UNF Lev
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type Code
Customer Type Name
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID
Price
Supplier Name
Quantity
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
• Un-normalised Form. Identify repeating groups
First Step
22. UNF Lev 1NF
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type Code
Customer Type Name
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID
Price
Supplier Name
Quantity
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type Code
Customer Type Name
Customer Number*
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID
Price
Supplier Name
Quantity
First Normal Form (1NF)
(Separate Repeating and Non-repeating group)
23. 1NF 2NF
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type Code
Customer Type Name
Customer Number*
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID
Price
Supplier Name
Quantity
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type Code
Customer Type Name
Customer Number*
Item Number*
Quantity
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID
Price
Supplier ID
Supplier Name
Second Normal Form (2NF)
(Remove Partial Dependency)
24. 2NF 3NF
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type Code
Customer Type Name
Customer Number*
Item Number*
Quantity
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID
Price
Supplier ID
Supplier Name
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type
Code
Customer Type
Name
Customer Number*
Item Number*
Quantity
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID*
Price
Supplier ID
Supplier Name
Third Normal Form (3NF)
(Remove Non-Key Dependency)
25. 2NF 3NF
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type Code
Customer Type Name
Customer Number*
Item Number*
Quantity
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID
Price
Supplier ID
Supplier Name
Customer Number
Customer Name
Customer Type
Code
Customer Type
Name
Customer Number*
Item Number*
Quantity
Item Number
Item Name
Supplier ID*
Price
Supplier ID
Supplier Name
Customer
CustomerItem
Item
Supplier
Third Normal Form (3NF) to Deriving Entities
27. Normalisation and Semantics - 1
• Normalisation depends on understanding the meaning of the
data.
• For example the price of an item depends on just the item. If the
same item could be supplied by different suppliers at different
prices then the normalisation would look different. How?
28. Normalisation and Semantics - 2
• Answer: there would be a separate group of attributes with the primary key
of Supplier Number and Item Number. Price would be functionally dependent
on both of these attributes and would therefore be an attribute of this entity.
29. Extended Example
• To be used throughout the course
• Lots of different documents might be examined e.g.
• Customer records
• Sales sheets
• Receipts and invoices
30. Marlowe Interiors - 2
Marlowe Interiors
1 Newington Green Road
London
N1 TYY
020 7888 1234
Job: Kitchen Makeover
Customer: Ivan Jones, 2 Digby Mansions. Highbury Park
Area: London North
Date: 02/03/00
Parts
1 sink, tin @ 130.00 including VAT.
1 u-pipe @ 20.00 ditto
3 x assorted plumbing fittings @ 33.00 total including VAT
1 thermostat @ 100.00 including VAT
Labour
Plumber 3 hours £150
Labourer 3 hours £60
Electrician 1 hour £50 (to fit thermostat)
TOTAL PARTS £283.00 TOTAL
LABOUR £260.00
TOTAL £543.00
31. Job Customer Area Date Part Labour
Kitchen
Makeover
Ivan Jones, 2
Digby
Mansions.
Highbury Park
North London 02/03/00 1 sink, tin @
130.00
Plumber 3
hours £150
Kitchen
Makeover
Ivan Jones, 2
Digby
Mansions.
Highbury Park
North London 02/03/00 1 u-pipe @
20.00
Labourer 3
hours £60
Kitchen
Makeover
Ivan Jones, 2
Digby
Mansions.
Highbury Park
North London 02/03/00 3 x assorted
plumbing
fittings
Kitchen
Makeover
Ivan Jones, 2
Digby
Mansions.
Highbury Park
North London 02/03/00 1 thermostat
@ 100.00
Electrician 1
hour £50 (to
fit
thermostat)
32. Logical Design
• Step One: Create and check ER model
• Step Two: Map ER Model to tables
33. Iterative
• Discussed as a series of steps but...
• Iterative
• Step-wise refinement
• Revisiting steps
• User involvement
34. Logical Design Step One - 1
• Step One: Create and check ER mode
• 1.1 Identify entities
• 1.2 Identify relationships
• 1.3 Identify and associate attributes with entities
• 1.4 Determine attribute domains
• 1.5 Determine candidate, primary and alternative key attributes
35. Logical Design Step One - 2
• Step One: Create and check ER mode
• 1.6 Specialise/Generalise entities (optional step, not covered here)
• 1.7 Check model for redundancy
• 1.8 Check model supports user transactions
• 1.9 Review model with user
36. Identifying Entities
• Examine user requirements
• Look for nouns
• Look for objects that exist in their own right e.g. Customers,
staff,
• Be aware of synonyms and homonyms
37. Art Suppliers Example Revisited - 1
• From an interview with the manager:
• “We get our goods from various suppliers. Generally we have
one supplier for each item. Customers order from us. They
usually order in bulk and we fill in an order form. We usually
group orders in the same are into a delivery. We have three
delivery vans.”
38. Art Suppliers Example Revisited - 2
• From an interview with the manager:
• “We get our goods from various suppliers. Generally we have
one supplier for each item. Customers order from us. They
usually order in bulk and we fill in an order form. We usually
group orders in the same are into a delivery. We have three
delivery vans.”
39. Art Suppliers – Some Possible Entities
• Manager
• Goods
• Suppliers
• Item
• Customers
• Order
• Order form
• Delivery
• Vans
40. Examining Entities more Closely
• Manager – one of a number of types of Staff
• Suppliers – yes probably an entity
• Item aka Goods
• Customers - yes
• Order – yes so we don’t need a separate entity for order form
• Delivery - yes
• Vans – yes in order to allocate to a delivery
41. Step 1.2 Identify Relationships
• Look for verbs e.g. Items are supplied by Suppliers
• Draw up a table with relationships between entities.
42. Cross Reference Entities for Relationships
Entity Relationship Entity
Items Have Suppliers
Orders Contain Items
44. Step 1.3 Identify Attributes
• Ask the question ‘what information are we to hold about that
particular entity?’
• Are they simple or composite attributes.
• Activity: What attributes do we need for a ‘Customer’?
45. Step 1.4 Determine Attribute Domains
• What are the possible values of an attribute?
Attribute Description Data type Domain
CustomerID Unique ID for
customer
Char First character will be
letter ‘C’ followed by a
sequential number
CustomerSurname Customer’s surname Char
CustomerType Specifies if customer
is private or a
company
Char Will be letter ‘P’ for
Private or ‘C’ for
company
CustomerSex Customer’s sex Char Will be ‘M’ or ‘F’
46. Step 1.5 Determine Candidate, Primary and
Alternate Keys
• Candidate key is an attribute or group of attributes capable of
uniquely identifying a row.
CustomerID OrderItemNo Date Time
1 1 13/01/11 9.55
1 2 13/01/11 9.56
3 1 13/01/11 10.01
Possible candidate keys?
47. • Candidate key is an attribute or group of attributes capable of
uniquely identifying a row.
CustomerID OrderItemNo Date Time
1 1 13/01/11 9.55
1 2 13/01/11 9.56
3 1 13/01/11 10.01
Possible candidate keys?
1. CustomerID, OrderItemNo, Date, Time
2. CustomerID, OrderItemNo, Date
3. CustoemrID, OrderItemNo, Time
48. Chose the Primary Key by Choosing
• The candidate key with the minimal set of attributes
• The candidate key that is less likely to have its values changed
• The candidate key that is less likely to lose uniqueness over time
• The candidate key with fewest characters or numbers
• The candidate key that is easiest to use for users
49. • Candidate key is an attribute or group of attributes capable of
uniquely identifying a row.
CustomerID OrderItemNo Date Time
1 1 13/01/11 9.55
1 2 13/01/11 9.56
3 1 13/01/11 10.01
Possible candidate keys?
1. CustomerID, OrderItemNo, Date, Time
2. CustomerID, OrderItemNo, Date
3. CustomerID, OrderItemNo, Time
Candidate 2 is best
choice
50. Step 1.7 Check Model for Redundancy
• Re-examine one-to-one relationships
• Remove redundant relationships
• Consider time dimension when assessing redundancy
52. Step 1.8 Check Model Supports User
Transactions
• Describe and document transactions
• Example
1. Create, update and delete a customers details
2. Create and update an order
3. Retrieve details for customers and the orders they make
55. Step 2.1 Create Tables
• Move from entities to tables.
• Most entities will have a one-to-one mapping of entity to table.
• Document in a data dictionary
56. Entities to Tables - 1
• Decompose any ‘many to many’ relationships
Order Item
An order is for many items and
an item might be on many
orders
Order ItemOrderItem
57. Entities to Tables - 2
• Some domains will become separate tables
• If a ‘type’ attributes has many values and these are dynamic then a look-up
table to support the domain should be added.
• Product_Type, Student_Type
58. Step 2.2 Check Table Structure using
Normalisation
• Use the normalisation techniques discussed in the previous
lecture to check the tables
• Do the tables you have from the top-down method match those
from the bottom-up (normalisation) method?
59. Step 2.3 Check Tables Support user
Transactions
• As the CRUD matrix checked that the ER supported the transactions a similar
check should now be made for the tables.
60. Step 2.4 Check Business Rules
• This begins the process of check integrity rules and other constraints.
• Check required data
• Column domain constraints
• Entity integrity
• Multiplicity
• Referential intgrity
62. References
• Connolly, T. and Begg, C. (2004). Database Systems: A Practical Approach to
Design, Implementation, and Management, 4th Edition. Addison Wesley –
Chapters 9 and 10
Editor's Notes
A → B means A functionally determines B.
A → B means A functionally determines B.
Anomalies: Deviation or departure from the normal or common order, form, or rule. One that is peculiar, irregular, abnormal, or difficult to classify.
A synonym is a word that has the same meaning as another word. "Couch" and "sofa" are synonyms. A homonym is a word that is pronounced like another word. "Pare," "pair," and "pear" are homonyms. Homonyms, from Greek homo "same" + onoma "name," are sometimes called "homophones" from Greek homo "same" + phone "sound."