The document provides an overview of key concepts in molecular biology including:
- DNA and RNA structure, including nucleotides, bases, sugars, and single vs double stranded forms.
- Key cellular components like genes, chromosomes, and genomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
- Central processes like transcription, translation, and the central dogma.
- Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, including bacterial vs human DNA organization and composition.
It also includes diagrams of DNA structure, the genetic code, and tRNA structure to illustrate these concepts. The document concludes with sample review questions.
Genetic material
Anant Mohan Sharma
All cell have the capability to give rise to the cell and
the encoded information in living cell is passed from
one generation to another. The information encoded
material is the genetic material or hereditary material
of the cell.
The genetic material is long sequence of nucleic
acids that contain the genetic instruction. Nucleic
acid are macromolecules in the form of DNA or
RNA.
Experimental evidences
Griffith’s experiment
Avery, MacLeod &McCarty experiment
Hershey & Chase experiment
RNA as genetic material
DNA structure
Z- DNA
V. Sasisekharan RL model
Types of RNA
Genetic material
Anant Mohan Sharma
All cell have the capability to give rise to the cell and
the encoded information in living cell is passed from
one generation to another. The information encoded
material is the genetic material or hereditary material
of the cell.
The genetic material is long sequence of nucleic
acids that contain the genetic instruction. Nucleic
acid are macromolecules in the form of DNA or
RNA.
Experimental evidences
Griffith’s experiment
Avery, MacLeod &McCarty experiment
Hershey & Chase experiment
RNA as genetic material
DNA structure
Z- DNA
V. Sasisekharan RL model
Types of RNA
Chromosome structure and packaging of dnaDIPTI NARWAL
Chromosome structure : classification based upon centromere position, autosomes and allosomes
Morphology of chromosome: chromatids, chromomeres, telomeres, sister chromatids
packaging of DNA: nucleosome model
functions of Chromosomes
Facts about DNA
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Chemical composition of eukaryotic chromosomes
Histones
Non-histone chromosomal protein
Scaffold proteins
Folded fibre model
Nucleosome model
H1 proteins
Histone modification
Chromatosome
Higher order of chromatin structure
Mechanism of DNA packaging
Conclusion
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes
Chromosomes are known as hereditary vehicles
They are formed of strands of DNA molecules which contain information for the development of different characteristics and performance of various metabolic activities of the cells
The coordination of various function is brought about through the formation of enzymes which are complex protein molecules
Although majority of DNA in most eukaryotes is found in the nucleus,some DNA is present within the mitochondria also. Here, I have included the basics and importance of the Organelle/ Mitochondrial DNA which can help you in better understanding of the same.
Structure of DNA. Coiling of DNA. Definitions about genetics. The Gene & The Genetic Code. Gene Mutation. Regulation of gene expression. DNA Functions. Patterns Of Inheritance
DNA is tightly packed in the nucleus of every cell. DNA wraps around special proteins called histones, which form loops of DNA called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin in turn forms larger loops and coils to form chromosomes.
DNA packaging is crucial because it makes sure that those excessive DNA are able to fit nicely in a cell that is many times smaller.
The DNA in bacterial cells are either circular or linear. To accommodate the size of bacterial cell, supercoiled DNA are folded into loops with each loop resembles shape of bead-like packets containing small basic proteins that is analogous to histone found in Eukaryotes.
These are Lectures of Basic molecular pharmacology presented by Dr.Omer Yahia In coordination with faculty of pharmacy university of Khartoum, al-Neelen medical research center, GENOM Professional training center and National center of Research (Ministry of science and communication).
Chromosome structure and packaging of dnaDIPTI NARWAL
Chromosome structure : classification based upon centromere position, autosomes and allosomes
Morphology of chromosome: chromatids, chromomeres, telomeres, sister chromatids
packaging of DNA: nucleosome model
functions of Chromosomes
Facts about DNA
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Chemical composition of eukaryotic chromosomes
Histones
Non-histone chromosomal protein
Scaffold proteins
Folded fibre model
Nucleosome model
H1 proteins
Histone modification
Chromatosome
Higher order of chromatin structure
Mechanism of DNA packaging
Conclusion
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes
Chromosomes are known as hereditary vehicles
They are formed of strands of DNA molecules which contain information for the development of different characteristics and performance of various metabolic activities of the cells
The coordination of various function is brought about through the formation of enzymes which are complex protein molecules
Although majority of DNA in most eukaryotes is found in the nucleus,some DNA is present within the mitochondria also. Here, I have included the basics and importance of the Organelle/ Mitochondrial DNA which can help you in better understanding of the same.
Structure of DNA. Coiling of DNA. Definitions about genetics. The Gene & The Genetic Code. Gene Mutation. Regulation of gene expression. DNA Functions. Patterns Of Inheritance
DNA is tightly packed in the nucleus of every cell. DNA wraps around special proteins called histones, which form loops of DNA called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin in turn forms larger loops and coils to form chromosomes.
DNA packaging is crucial because it makes sure that those excessive DNA are able to fit nicely in a cell that is many times smaller.
The DNA in bacterial cells are either circular or linear. To accommodate the size of bacterial cell, supercoiled DNA are folded into loops with each loop resembles shape of bead-like packets containing small basic proteins that is analogous to histone found in Eukaryotes.
These are Lectures of Basic molecular pharmacology presented by Dr.Omer Yahia In coordination with faculty of pharmacy university of Khartoum, al-Neelen medical research center, GENOM Professional training center and National center of Research (Ministry of science and communication).
Το φύλλο εργασίας που δόθηκε στους μαθητές στα πλαίσια του προγράμματος mascil που είχε ως στόχο την ανάπτυξη δραστηριοτήτων για την εφαρμογή της διερευνητικής διδασκαλίας και τη σύνδεση της διδασκαλίας των μαθηματικών και των φυσικών επιστημών με το χώρο εργασίας. Η δραστηριότητα αυτή αφορά το μάθημα της Ευκλείδειας Γεωμετρίας για την Β Λυκείου και το επάγγελμα του Τοπογράφου Μηχανικού.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable protein production. Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These molecules are composed of long strands of nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
This is a lecture presented by Dr.Omer Yahia Describing the first step of in the Role of molecular diagnostics through out the life. Give a brief shading out on the procedures for sample collection and types of diseases and syndromes undergone such tests .
Basic Mutagenic signal Transduction or the cancer signal transduction that control cell cycle are important pathways to understand cancer in molecular level and to invent targeted treatment.
This is a descriptive and simple molecular biology lab manual.For students who do not have P.C in their home and can not use the virtual lab videos available online.
Vitiligo is an acquired organ specific autoimmune disease of unknown etiology characterized by white patches in the skin. The patho-physiology of this disease is characterized by loss of functional melanocytes associated with infiltration of reactive T cells and dendritic cells. So, there are many evidences support that autoimmunity has a great role in Vitiligo-pathogenesis. Many efforts were made in areas of Histopathology, Immunology, and molecular biology to solve vitiligo puzzle. However, no clear etiology was described. We tried here to review some histopathological findings that make strong evidences for the autoimmunity in this disease.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
1. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
1 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
Molecular Biology
Molecular biology:
Is the branch of biology that study gene structure and function at the
molecular level.
Genes:
It is a segment of DNA containing the information for a single
polypeptide or RNA molecule. It is the unit of inheritance that governs the
character of a particular trait.
DNA:
It is a polymer of nucleotides (deoxyribose sugar, phosphate and one of
the four nitrogenous bases (Guanine, thymine, cytosine and adenine). It is the
genetic material of all cellular organisms and most viruses.
Transcription:
It is the formation of a complementary RNA from a DNA template.
Translation:
It is synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm using the information
encoded by mRNA.
Central Dogma:
It is a concept stated that information in a cell always flowed from DNA
to RNA to Protein. This concept was overturned by the discovery of reverse
transcriptase enzyme which produces DNA from RNA.
3. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
3 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
Bacteria contain only one circular DNA molecule contained in the
cytoplasm and Plasmid; small, circular, double stranded DNA separated
from bacterial chromosome.
Human cells contain two sources of DNA: Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA.
Nuclear DNA arranged in 23 pairs of chromosomes as follows”
22 pairs (autosomes).
1 pair (sex chromosome); XX for female and XY for male
Mitochondrial DNA is a circular, protein and intron free DNA and It is inherited
maternally.
Diploid:
Containing both member of each pair of homologous chromosomes
e.g. All cells except germinal cells and mature RBCs
Haploid:
Containing only one member of each pair of homologous chromosomes.
Haploid cells are produced during Meiosis.
e.g. sperm and ova
Features held in common by Eukaryote and Prokaryote:
1. Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic code
(G, C, A, T).
2. Similar mechanisms for transcription and translation of genetic
information.
Features of Eukaryotic cells not found in Prokaryotes:
1. The cell is divided in to nucleus and cytoplasm, separated by a
nuclear envelope containing complex pore structure.
2. Complex chromosomes composed of DNA and associated
proteins.
3. Cell division using a microtubule – containing mitotic spindle that
separate chromosomes.
4. Presence of two copies of genes per cell (Diploid) one from each
parent.
5. Presence of three different RNA synthesizing enzymes (RNA
Polymerases).
Genome:
The complement of genetic information unique to each species of
organism. It is equivalent the DNA of Haploid set of chromosomes from that
species.
4. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
4 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
DNA STRUCTURE
3.2 billion Base pair (BP) of DNA in Human genome. The total size of DNA
when we consider the two copies is 6.4 billion BP. 640,000,0000 bp
Size/length unit isBp (Base Pair).
Kb (Kilo base). 1000 bp
Mb (Mega base). 1000000 bp
5. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
5 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
The complete set of metaphase
chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell is
called its karyotype.
Humans, which are diploid (2N)
organisms, have 46 chromosomes
(two genomes), with one haploid (N)
set of chromosomes (23
chromosomes: one genome) coming
from the egg and another haploid set
coming from the sperm.
Chromatin: is the stainable material
in a cell nucleus: DNA and proteins. A
complex nucleoprotein material that
makes up the chromosomes of
eukaryotes. The term is commonly
used in descriptions of chromosome
structure and function.
Chromatin that remains compacted
during interphase is called
heterochromatin to distinguish it from
euchromatin, which returns to a
dispersed state.
Histones and nonhistones are two
major types of proteins associated
with DNA in chromatin. Both types of
proteins play an important role in
determining the physical structure of
the chromosome. The histones are
the most abundant proteins in
chromatin.
They are small basic proteins with a
net positive charge that facilitates
their binding to the negatively charged
DNA.
Five main types of histones are
associated with eukaryotic nuclear
DNA: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.
Weight for weight, there is an equal
amount of histone and DNA in
chromatin.
Nonhistones are all the proteins
associated with DNA, apart from the
histones. Nonhistones include
proteins that play a role in the
processes of DNA replication, DNA
repair, transcription (including gene
6. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
6 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
regulation), and recombination.
Chemical structure and types of nucleic acids:
Organisms contain genetic material
that governs an individual’s
characteristics and that is
transferred from parent to progeny.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the
genetic material of all living
organisms and some viruses.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is the
genetic material only of certain
Viruses .In prokaryotes and
eukaryotes; the DNA is always
double-stranded, whereas in viruses
the genetic material may be double-
or single-stranded DNA or RNA,
depending on the virus.
DNA and RNA are macromolecules
composed of smaller building blocks
called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
consists of a five-carbon sugars
(deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in
RNA) to which are attached a
nitrogenous base and a phosphate
group. In DNA, the four possible
bases are adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine; in RNA, the
four possible bases are adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and uracil.
7. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
7 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
Nitrogenous bases:
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxy Ribonucleic acid (DNA):
Sugar + Phosphate + Nitrogenous base = Nucleic Acid
2’-deoxy ribose + Phosphate + adenine, guanine, = DNA
Cytosine or Thymine
Ribose + Phosphate + adenine, guanine, = RNA
Cytosine or Uracil
9. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
9 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
According to Watson and Crick’s model, the DNA molecule consists of two
polynucleotide (polymers of nucleotides) chains joined by hydrogen bonds
between pairs of bases—adenine (A) and thymine (T); and guanine (G)
and cytosine (C)—in a double helix.
The genetic material of viruses may be linear or circular Double-stranded
DNA, single-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA, or single-stranded
RNA, depending on the virus. The genomes of some viruses are
organized into a single chromosome, whereas others have a segmented
genome.
The genetic material of prokaryotes is double-stranded DNA localized into
one or a few chromosomes. Typically prokaryotic chromosomes are
circular, but linear Chromosomes are found in a number of species.
A bacterial chromosome is compacted into the nucleoid region by the
supercoiling of the DNA helix and the formation of looped domains of
supercoiled DNA.
10. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
10 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
The eukaryotic genome is distributed among
several linear chromosomes. The complete set
of metaphase chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell
is called its karyotype.
The nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes are
complexes of DNA and histone and nonhistone
chromosomal proteins. Each unduplicated
chromosome consists of one linear, unbroken,
double-stranded DNA molecule running
throughout its length; the DNA is variously
coiled and folded. The histones are constant
from cell to cell within an organism, whereas the
Nonhistones vary significantly between cell
types.
The large amount of DNA present in the
eukaryotic chromosome is compacted by its
association with histones in nucleosomes and
by higher levels of folding of the nucleosomes
into chromatin fibers.
Properties of DNA:
1. The two chains are antiparallel (show opposite
polarity); that is, the two strands are oriented in
opposite directions, with one strand oriented in
the 5’–to–3’way and the other strand oriented
3’–to–5’.
2. The sugar–phosphate backbones are on the
outsides of the double helix, with the bases
oriented toward the central axis.
3. The bases in each of the two polynucleotide
chains are bonded together by hydrogen
bonds, which are relatively weak chemical
bonds. The specific pairings observed are A
bonded with T (two hydrogen bond) and G
bonded with C (three hydrogen bond). The
hydrogen bonds make it relatively easy to
separate the two strands of the DNA. The
specific A–T and G–C pairs are called
complementary base pairs, so the nucleotide
sequence in one strand dictates the nucleotide
sequence of the other. For instance, if one chain
has the sequence 5’-TATTCCGA-3’, the
opposite, antiparallel chain must bear the
sequence 3’-ATAAGGCT-5’.
11. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
11 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
4. The DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide
chains wound around each other in a right-
handed double helix.
5. Because of the way the bases bond with each
other, the two sugar–phosphate backbones of the
double helix are not equally spaced from one
another along the helical axis. This unequal
spacing results in grooves of unequal size between
the backbones; one groove is called the major
(wider) groove, the other the minor (narrower)
groove.
6. Coiling of DNA: that is, the double helix is twisted
in space about its own axis.
Types of hydrogen bonding
12. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
12 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
Properties of RNA:
1. In the cell, the functional forms of RNA such as messenger RNA (mRNA),
transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), small nuclear RNA(snRNA),
and micro RNA (miRNA) are single-stranded molecules.
2. A single-stranded RNA molecule may fold up on itself to produce regions
of antiparallel double-stranded RNA separated by segments of unpaired
RNA. This configuration is called the secondary structure of the molecule
3. Single-stranded RNA and double-stranded RNA molecules are the
genomes of certain viruses.
RNA: is a single stranded; the pyrimidine base uracil (U) replaces thymine and
ribose sugar replaces deoxyribose.
Messenger RNA/ mRNA
Transcripts of structural genes.
Encode all the information necessary for the synthesis of a polypeptide of
protein.
The 5' terminus is capped by 7 methylguanosine triphosphate.
Synthesis of the poly (A) tail involves cleavage of its 3' end and then the
addition of about 200 adenine residues.
Intermediate carrier of genetic information; deliver genetic information to
the cytoplasm.
13. Molecular Diagnostics 4th year
13 Ms.Omer Yahia Elhussein
Transfer RNA/ tRNA:
All the tRNAs share a common secondary structure resembles a
cloverleaf: They have four base- paired stems defining three stem-loops
(the D loop, anticodon loop, and T loop) and the acceptor stem.
tRNA carry correct amino acids to their position along the mRNA template
to be added to the growing polypeptide chain.