Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins. Genes within chromosomes hold the code for building and maintaining an organism. Genes are located at specific positions on chromosomes. Diploid cells contain two copies of each chromosome - one from each parent. The interactions between gene copies give rise to traits like dominance. Chromosomes exist in two states - before and after DNA replication. Genes have fixed locations on chromosomes. Chromosomes package DNA through histone proteins that DNA winds around.

1. Chromosomes and
Genetics
.
.
Basic review:
Chromosomes are long pieces of DNA, with
supporting proteins.
. Genes are short regions of this DNA that
hold the information needed to build and
maintain the body
.
.
Genes have fixed locations: each gene is in
a particular place on a particular chromosome
Diploids have 2 copies of each
chromosome, one from each parent. This
means 2 copies of each gene.
. The interactions between the 2 copies of
each gene give rise to the various forms of
dominance.
By
Dr. Priti D.Diwan
Assistant Professor
Department of Zoology
J.D.PatilSangludkarMahavidyalay Daryapur.

2. Chromosomes
. The essential part of a
chromosome is a single very
long strand of DNA. This
DNA contains all the genetic
information for creating and
running the organism.
. Each chromosome has a
central constricted region
called a centromere that
serves as an attachment point
for the machinery of mitosis.

3. Chromosomes
. Chromosomes exist in 2 different
states, before and after they
replicate their DNA. Before
replication, chromosomes have
one chromatid. After replication,
chromosomes have 2 sister
chromatids, held together at the
centromere. Each chromatid is
one piece of DNA with its
supporting proteins.
. In mitosis, the two chromatids of
each chromosome separate, with
each chromatid going into a
daughter cell.

4. Chromosomes = DNA

5. Eukaryotic chromosomal
organization
. 2 main groups of proteins involved in
folding/packaging eukaryotic
chromosomes
. Histones = positively charged proteins filled
with amino acids lysine and arginine that
bond
. Nonhistones = less positive

6. Model for Chromatin
Structure
. Chromatin is linked together every 200
bps (nuclease digestion)
.
.
.
.
Chromatin arranged like
“String onBeads” (electron microscope)
8 histones in each nucleosome
147 bps per nucleosome core particle
with 53 bps for linker DNA (H1)
. Left-handed superhelix

7. Eukaryotic chromosomal
organization
. Histone proteins
.
.
Abundant
Histone protein sequence is highly
conserved among eukaryotes
.
.
Provide the first level of packaging for the
chromosome
DNA is wound around histone proteins to
produce nucleosomes; stretch of unwound
DNA between each nucleosome

8. Eukaryotic chromosomal
organization
. Nonhistone proteins
. Other proteins that are associated with the
chromosomes
. Many different types in a cell; highly variable in cell
types, organisms, and at different times in the same
cell type
.
.
Amount of nonhistone protein varies
May have role in compaction or be involved in other
functions requiring interaction with the DNA
. Many are acidic and negatively charged; bind to the
histones; binding may be transient

9. Eukaryotic chromosomal
organization
. Histone proteins
. 5 main types
. H1—attached to the nucleosome and involved in
further compaction of the DNA (conversion of 10
nm chromatin to 30 nm chromatin)
.
.
.
.
H2A
Two copies in each nucleosome
H2B
‘histone octomer’; DNA wraps
H3 around this structure1.75 times
H4
. This structure produces 10nm chromatin

10. Nucleosome structure

11. Nucleosomes connected together by linker DNA and H1
histone to produce
the “beads-on-a-string” extended form of chromatin
Histone octomer
H1
Linker DNA
10 nm chromatin is produced in the first level of packaging.
.

12. - Core DNA = 146 bp
- Linker DNA = 8-114 bp (usually 55bp)
- DNA turns 1 and ¾ times around histone octamer.

16. What is a giant chromosome?

17. Giant
chromosome
 Chromosomes are decondensed during interphase.
 Some exception are lampbrush chromosomes of
vertebrate & polytene chromosome of insect.
 In both these chromosome The region that are actively
synthesizing RNA are least condensed.
 Giant chromosome are very long & thick (200 times)
during metaphase.
 Hence they are know as “Giant chromosomes”.

18. Lampbrush chromosome
INTRODUCTION
 First discovered by Ruckert in 1892.
 Occur in oocytes of vertebrates as well as in some invertebrates.
 Found in those cells which produce a lot of RNA and their cytoplasmicand
nuclear volume increases.
 Their detailed structure have been studied during the diplotene stage of
meiotic division.
 During diplotene stage, certain chr. Stretch out large loops of DNA, causing
the chr to resemble a lamp brush.
 They are visible under the light mocroscope.

19. A lampbrush chromosome
& the “original item”
a- telomeric loop,
b. side loops,
c.a chromatid without
loops.
a
.
b.
c
.

20. Morphology
 Each LBC’s consists of a main axis having two
chromatids.
 Main axis has a row of granules known as
chromomeres, which are held together by fine axial
fibre.
 Lateral loops in pairs project from the
chromomeres.
 About 1 to 9 loops may arise from a single
chromomere, Their size varies.
 They are held together at points of chiasma
formation.
 The loops of a paired chromosome form mirror-
image structures.
 This stage can last several months.

23.  Lamp brush chromosomes are involved in the synthesis of RNA&
proteins.
 Each loop is believed to represent one long operon consisting of
repetitive cistrons.
 Each locus codes for RNA.
 The loop is supposed to synthesis at a high rate because of repetitive
gene sequence.
 There are also reports that the LBC help in the formation of yolk material
in the egg.
Function

24. LBC transcription
 Transcription occurs either along the whole loop or at a parts of aloop.
 At the beginning of meiosis, when DNA replication is complete,the
homologous pairs lie immediately next to each other & form
characteristic structures composed of 4 chromatids.
 Lampbrush chromosomes are distinguished by an especially high rate
of RNAtranscription.

25. Polytene
chromosomes
INTRODUCTION
 First discovered by E.G Balbiani in 188, in squash of salivary cells of
Chironomous.
 They also occur in rectal epithelium & Malphigian tubules.
 They are many times larger than the normal chromosomes reaching a
length of 200µm and are visible even under a compound microscope.
 The enormous size is due to the duplication of chromonema which do
not separate.
 According to an estimate, the polytene chromosomes have 1000 times
more DNA than the normal somaticchromosomes.
 Because of these chromosomes actually consist of many strands,they
are called as Polytene chromosome.

26. Morphology
 Contain 5 long & 1 short arm radiating from a central point called
chromocentre, formed by the fusion of centromeres all the 8
chromosomes found in the cell.
 Of the 6 arms, the short arm represents the fused IV chromosome & the
longest represents the fused sex chr.
 About 80% of the DNA is located in bands, & about 15% ininterbands.
 The chromatin in Darkly stained band is more condensed than chromatin
in interbands.
 Intensely stained chromosomal segments correspond to high degree of
packing & are genetically inactive (heterochromatin).
 Less tightly packed segments stain less distinctly & correspond to
segment with genetic activity (euchromatin).

27.  In Drosophila, 5000 bands have been found
in the 4 chromosomes of salivary gland cells.
 Chromomeres in bands are at right angle to
the long axis of chromosome.
 Bands have a high DNA content & absorb
U.V light.
 Painter (1933) & Bridges (1936) showed that
in Drosophila the bands are associated with
genes.

28.  Found in salivary glands & other tissues of flies.
 Seen in the nucleus during interphase.
 Show linear series of alternating bands & interbands,
distinctive banding for each chromosome in a given
species.

30. Functional stages in polytene
chromosomes
 Polytene chromosomes form structures that correlate with the functional
state
 During the larval development of drosophila, a series of expansions
(puffs) appear in temporal stages in the polytene chromosomes.
 Chromosome puffs are decondensed, expanded segments that
represent active chromosomal regions, i.e., regions that are being
transcribed.
 The location and duration of the puffs reflect different stages of larval
development
 The incorporation of radioactively labeled RNA has been used to
demonstrate that RNA synthesis, a sign of gene activity(transcription),
occurs in these regions

31. Chromosome puffs
 There are certain intresting structure associated with the
bands in the giant chromosomes called as chromosome puffs
or Balbiani rings.
 The swellings are called as chromosome puffs.
 These puffs are associated with the metabolic activities &
represents areas of active RNA synthesis.

33. Function
 Increasing the volume of the cells' nuclei and causing cell
expansion.
 Metabolic advantage as multiple copies of genes permits a
high level of gene expression.
 In Drosophila melanogaster, the chromosomes undergo
many rounds of endoreduplication, to produce large amounts
of glue before pupation.
 There is tandem duplication of various polytene bands
located near the centromere of the X chromosome which
results in the Bar phenotype of kidney-shaped eyes.

34. Reference
CYTOLOGY & GENETICS BY SUMITRASEN
 www.biotechnologia-journal.pl
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampbrush_chro
mosome
 www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytene_chromosome
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome_…
 www.sciencedirect.com
 www.tutorvista.com