Kreb's Cycle.pptx
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This document summarizes the Krebs or citric acid cycle, which is the final common pathway that oxidizes carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce energy in the form of ATP. It discusses how pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, which then enters the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria. The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that generate electron carriers NADH and FADH2, whose electrons are then transferred to the electron transport chain to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. A total of 12 ATP molecules are produced for each acetyl-CoA molecule that goes through the Krebs cycle. Oxygen is required for the regeneration of NAD+ and FAD from N
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![BIOCHEMISTRY
[B. Pharm – I Yr.]
Topic: Kreb’s Cycle/Citric acid cycle/TCA cycle
Umesh Kumar
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Pharm. Chemistry
Hygia Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/krebscycle-230608071624-74363a6c/85/Kreb-s-Cycle-pptx-1-320.jpg)
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2) Reactions of the TCA cycle involve the condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate, followed by several oxidation, isomerization and decarboxylation reactions that generate NADH and FADH2.
3) The TCA cycle is regulated by enzymes like citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase which respond to cellular energy levels like ATP/ADP
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The document discusses the citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It provides information on:
1) The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and involves a series of chemical reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2 to generate energy.
2) Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in the mitochondria, providing the two-carbon unit that enters the Krebs cycle.
3) The cycle is amphibolic, meaning it is both catabolic, breaking down molecules, and anabolic,
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The reactions of the TCA cycle generate carbon dioxide, reduced NAD, reduced FAD and GTP*
There are negative and positive controls for the TCA cycle
*Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is a guanine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. GTP functions as a carrier of phosphates and pyrophosphates involved in channeling chemical energy into specific biosynthetic pathways.
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The TCA cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle, is the central metabolic pathway that catalyzes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. The TCA cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is the final common pathway for the oxidation of these three macronutrient types. Through a series of chemical reactions, acetyl-CoA is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions that will be used in the electron transport chain to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
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This lecture discusses pharmaceutical analysis techniques including titration of mixtures, estimation of magnesium sulfate and calcium gluconate. It focuses on the use of masking and demasking agents to estimate multiple metals in a solution. Masking agents like triethanolamine, thioglycerol and potassium cyanide form stronger complexes with metals, preventing their interaction with the titrant. Cyanide is an effective masking agent for metals like cadmium, zinc and copper. Demasking agents like formaldehyde-acetic acid and chloral hydrate can break these complexes to selectively estimate the masked metals. The combination of masking and demasking agents allows estimation of many metals in a single solution.
Lecture - 11 Polarography.pptx
Lecture 11 discusses pharmaceutical analysis and polarography. Polarography is a voltametric electrochemical analysis method where current-voltage curves are obtained at microelectrode surfaces. It works by studying the polarization effect on an indicator electrode from mercury and analyte substances in solution. The lecture covers the principle, instrumentation, and Ilkovic equation of polarography and will continue in the next video.
Lecture - 16 Iodimetry and Iodometry.pptx
This document discusses iodimetry, a type of titration used in pharmaceutical analysis. Iodimetry involves titrating with iodine due to its oxidizing power in aqueous solution. The principle of iodimetry is that it uses oxidation-reduction reactions involving iodine, with direct titration using a standard iodine solution. Iodine solutions act as weak oxidizing agents used to determine strong oxidizing agents. The reaction is described as the half reaction for iodine in these applications.
Lecture - 15 Cerimetry.pptx
The document summarizes a lecture on cerimetry/cerimetric titrations, which are oxidation-reduction titrations involving cerium sulfate as the oxidizing agent. Cerium sulfate is a powerful oxidant that can only be used in acidic solutions to prevent precipitation of cerium hydroxide or basic salts. The principle is that cerium sulfate in sulfuric acid acts as a strong oxidizing agent with a high oxidation potential. Ceric ammonium sulfate is commonly used as the standard solution due to its suitable solubility and approximate formula of Ce(SO4)2.2(NH4)2. SO4. 2H2O. Ceric ammonium sulfate is a strong oxidizing agent that can
Lecture - 20 Complexometric Titrations.pptx
This document provides an overview of complexometric titration and discusses the use of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) as a complexometric indicator. It defines important terms like complexometric titration, complexometric indicator, and complexation. It explains that complexometric titration uses the formation of a colored complex to indicate the endpoint of a titration. EDTA is highlighted as a hexadentate ligand that can form stable complexes with small metal ions, causing a distinct color change used to determine the endpoint. The document notes that complexometric titration with EDTA allows for accurate determination of metal ions at low concentrations.
Lecture - 13 Oxidation and Reduction.pptx
This document provides an overview of oxidation and reduction concepts for a Pharmaceutical Analysis course taught by Umesh Kumar. It defines oxidation as the addition of oxygen, loss of hydrogen, or loss of electrons, and defines reduction as the removal of oxygen, gain of hydrogen, or gain of electrons. Examples are given for both oxidation and reduction.
Lecture - 23 Gravimetric Analysis.pptx
Gravimetric analysis involves isolating and weighing an element or compound from a solution in pure form. It works by precipitating the analyte substance as an insoluble compound using a reagent. Key steps include precipitation, testing completeness, filtering, washing, drying, and weighing the precipitate. Issues like co-precipitation and post-precipitation can introduce impurities, so the precipitate must form selectively and be stable, insoluble, and convertible to a pure compound for an accurate analysis.
Lecture - 14 Redox Titration - Copy.pptx
This lecture discusses different types of indicators used in pharmaceutical analysis titrations including internal, self, and external indicators. It also covers redox titrations which are based on oxidation-reduction reactions that change the valency of elements or ions. Some common types of redox titrations mentioned are cerimetry, iodimetry, iodometry, bromometry, dichrometry, and titration with potassium iodate.
Lecture - 3 Conductometry.pptx
Conductometric titration is a quantitative analysis method that uses changes in electrolytic conductivity to identify the concentration of an analyte in a mixture. During titration, the continuous addition of the titrant and recording of conductivity allows the stoichiometric point to be identified by a sudden change in conductivity. There are different types of conductometric titrations depending on whether strong acids or bases are titrated with strong or weak acids and bases. Conductivity cells and a conductometer are used to measure conductivity of electrolytic solutions. Applications include determining solubility, kinetics, degree of dissociation, and concentration.
Lecture - 5 Potentiometry.pptx
This document discusses potentiometry and electrochemical cells used in pharmaceutical analysis. It describes how potentiometry measures the potential of an electrochemical cell under static conditions without current flow. The cell consists of two half-cells containing electrodes immersed in solutions, connected by a salt bridge. Reference electrodes like the standard hydrogen electrode provide a known, stable potential for comparison to the indicator electrode, whose potential changes based on analyte concentration. Common reference electrodes and their uses are also outlined.
Lecture - 8 Indicator electrodes - Copy.pptx
This document provides a summary of lecture 8 on pharmaceutical analysis which discusses different types of indicator electrodes used to measure potential or pH. It outlines metal indicator electrodes including electrodes of the first, second and third kind as well as redox indicator electrodes. Electrodes of the first kind involve a reversible metal rod in contact with its own ions. Electrodes of the second kind have two interfaces like a silver rod coated with silver chloride. Electrodes of the third kind include a mercury electrode with an amalgamated gold wire to titrate solutions. Redox indicator electrodes use an inert metal like platinum in contact with reduced and oxidized forms of a half reaction. The lecture continues in the next video.
Lecture - 1 Introduction of Pharmaceutical Analysis.pptx
This document provides an overview of pharmaceutical analysis. It discusses the definition of pharmaceutical analysis as involving the science of extraction, preparation, and purification of substances used in medicines. Pharmaceutical analysis is divided into qualitative analysis, which identifies components, and quantitative analysis, which estimates quantities. Analytical methods are classified as chemical methods including volumetric, gravimetric, and gasometric techniques, instrumental or physicochemical methods, microbiological methods, and biological methods. Common instrumental analytical methods measure electrical potential, conductance, or current using instruments like potentiometers, conductometers, and polarography/voltammetry. The document will continue discussing these topics in the next video.
Lecture - 4 Conductometry.pptx
Conductometry uses a conductivity cell and conductometer to measure the conductance of electrolytic solutions. There are various types of conductivity cells, including some that have parallel platinum electrodes. Conductometry has applications like determining the solubility of sparingly soluble materials, studying reaction kinetics, measuring the degree of dissociation of weak electrolytes, assessing the basicity of organic acids, and determining concentrations.
Lecture - 21 Complexometric Titrations.pptx
This document provides an overview of complexometric titrations and detection of the endpoint in these titrations. It discusses that complexometric titrations involve transforming a metal ion into a complex ion using a ligand such as EDTA. It also describes various metal ion indicators used to visually detect the endpoint in complexometric titrations, including Calcon, Catechol violet, and Erichrome black T. These indicators form colored complexes with metals but change color when the metal ion is chelated by EDTA, signaling the endpoint of the titration. The document is part of a lecture on pharmaceutical analysis covering the topics of complexometric titrations and metal ion indicators.
Lecture - 18 Bromometry.pptx
This document discusses bromatometry, which is a titration method using potassium bromate as the oxidizing agent. It can be used for the qualitative determination and assay of pharmaceutical substances like mephenesin, phenol sodium, and salicylate. The principle is that potassium bromate is reduced to bromide in the presence of HCl, then oxidized to produce free bromine at the endpoint, which can be detected using methyl red indicator. Some applications mentioned are the assay of isoniazid, determination of hydroxylamine, and determination of arsenic and antimony. The lecture on pharmaceutical analysis will continue this topic in the next video.
Lecture - 2 Conductometry.pptx
This document provides an overview of conductometry and conductometric titrations. It defines conductometry as measuring the conductivity of ionic solutions caused by ion mobility in an electric field. Conductance is the ability of a substance to conduct electricity and is the inverse of resistance. Conductometric titration uses changes in electrolytic conductivity upon continuous titrant addition to identify the concentration of an analyte. The principle is that cations and anions have varying conductance values, so the overall conductance after titrant addition depends on whether a reaction occurs. If no reaction occurs, conductivity increases as all ions contribute, but a reaction causes a sudden change indicating the stoichiometric point.
Lecture - 19 Titration with potassium iodate.pptx
Potassium iodate is a strong oxidizing agent that can be used to assay several pharmaceutical substances through titration. It reacts quantitatively with both iodides and iodine. The titrations can be performed in the presence of organic acids, alcohols, and other organic substances. The oxidation-reduction reactions with potassium iodate produce iodine monochloride in strong hydrochloric acid. Some applications of potassium iodate titrations include the determination of potassium iodide, weak iodine solutions, aqueous iodine solutions, sodium diatrizoate, iodized oil fuel injection, mercury chloride, and hydralazine hydrochloride and injection.
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- 1. BIOCHEMISTRY [B. Pharm – I Yr.] Topic: Kreb’s Cycle/Citric acid cycle/TCA cycle Umesh Kumar Assistant Professor Dept. of Pharm. Chemistry Hygia Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
- 2. CONTENTS • Citric Acid Cycle • Conversion of pyruvate (pathway) • Introduction of TCA cycle • Pathway of TCA cycle • Energetics of TCA cycle
- 3. Conversion of Pyruvate into Acetyl CoA • Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA by oxidative decarboxylation. • This is an irreversible reaction, catalyzed by a multienzyme complex, known as pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH), which is found only in the mitochondria. • High activities of PDH are found in cardiac muscle and kidney. • The enzyme PDH requires five cofactors (coenzymes), namely-TPP, lipoamide, FAD, coenzyme A and NAD+ (lipoamide contains lipoic acid linked to e-amino group of lysine). The overall reaction of PDH is
- 4. Pathway for conversion of Pyruvate into Acetyl CoA
- 5. Complete Pathway for conversion of Pyruvate into Acetyl CoA
- 6. KREB’S CYCLE/ CITRIC ACID CYCLE/ TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE/ TCA CYCLE
- 7. Citric acid cycle • The citric acid cycle was proposed by Hans Adolf Krebs in 1937, based on the studies of oxygen consumption in pigeon breast muscle. • The cycle is named in his honour (Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1953). • About 65-70% of the ATP is synthesized in Krebs cycle. • Citric acid cycle essentially involves the oxidation of acetyl CoA to CO2 and H2O. • This cycle utilizes about two thirds of total oxygen consumed by the body. • The name TCA cycle is used, since, at the outset of the cycle, tricarboxylic acids (citrate, cis- aconitate and isocitrate) participate.
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- 9. Mitochondria
- 10. Reactions of Citric acid cycles • Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is discussed above. • This step is a connecting link between glycolysis and TCA cycle. • The events of TCA cycle are; • Formation of citrate – citrate synthase • Isomerization of citrate – aconitase • Formation of α-ketoglutarate – isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICD) • Formation of α-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA - α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase • Formation of succinate – succinate thiokinase • Conversion of succinate to fumarate – succinate dehydrogenase • Formation of malate – fumarase • Conversion of malate into oxaloacetate – malate dehydrogenase (MDH)
- 13. Requirement of oxygen by TCA Cycle • There is no direct participation of oxygen in Krebs cycle. • However, the cycle operates only under aerobic conditions. This is due to the fact that NAD+ and FAD (from NADH and FADH2, respectively) required for the operation of the cycle can be regenerated in the respiratory chain only in the presence of O2.
- 14. Energetics of TCA cycle • During the process of oxidation of acetyl CoA via citric acid cycle, 4 reducing equivalents (3 as NADH and one as FADH2) are produced. • Oxidation of 3 NADH by electron transport chain coupled with oxidative phosphorylation results in the synthesis of 9 ATP, whereas FADH2 leads to the formation of 2 ATP. • Besides, there is one substrate level phosphorylation. Thus, a total of twelve ATP are produced from one acetyl CoA.
- 15. THANK YOU HYGIA GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS GHAILA ROAD, GAAZIPUR BALRAM, FAIZULLAHGANJ, LUCKNOW