This document summarizes a study on the lubricity of biodiesel and petrodiesel components. The study found that fatty compounds in biodiesel possess better lubricity than hydrocarbons in petrodiesel due to their polarity-imparting oxygen atoms. Free fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, and glycerol showed better lubricity than fatty acid esters. Adding low levels of biodiesel or polar compounds like free fatty acids or monoacylglycerols to low-lubricity petrodiesel can improve its lubricity. Commercial biodiesel is required at 1-2% to attain the lubricity-imparting effects of contaminants in biodiesel
Production and evaluation of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter)Alexander Decker
This document summarizes an experimental study on the production of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter) via transesterification. Key factors affecting the yield of biodiesel such as methanol to oil ratio, catalyst concentration, and operating temperature were investigated. The results showed that a methanol to oil ratio of 0.25v/v, catalyst concentration of 0.5 wt%, and temperature of 60°C provided optimal conditions for biodiesel yield. Under these conditions, palm oil produced a higher biodiesel yield of over 90% compared to ghee which had a lower yield. The biodiesel produced from both feedstocks met biodiesel standards according to analysis.
The document analyzes the performance and emissions of diesel blended with palm kernel oil and an additive. Palm kernel oil was blended with diesel in ratios from 10% to 30% by volume. The blends and pure diesel were tested in a single cylinder diesel engine. Key findings include:
1) The 25% palm kernel oil and 75% diesel blend (B25) showed a 19% reduction in smoke emissions and a 13.3% reduction in hydrocarbon emissions compared to pure diesel.
2) Adding an additive to the B25 blend further reduced smoke by 23.8% and hydrocarbons by 16% compared to pure diesel.
3) The B25 blend and B25 blend with additive showed reductions in carbon
IRJET- Influence of Al2O3 Nano Material Additives based Biodiesel Blends on t...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper that investigated the performance of a diesel engine using blends of biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil and dispersed with aluminum oxide nanoparticles. Biodiesel was produced through transesterification of waste cooking oil with methanol using a sodium hydroxide catalyst. The biodiesel was then blended with diesel in ratios of B10, B20, B30 and B40. Experimental testing of the blends in a single cylinder diesel engine found that the B40 blend achieved the highest thermal efficiency of 28.63%, outperforming neat diesel. The study evaluated properties and engine performance parameters like brake thermal efficiency and fuel consumption.
This document discusses biodiesel as an alternative fuel to diesel. It summarizes that biodiesel is produced through a chemical process called transesterification where vegetable oils or animal fats are combined with alcohol to form alkyl esters. Common feedstocks used for biodiesel production include soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and waste cooking oils. The document examines the transesterification reaction process and variables that impact biodiesel quality such as catalyst type and concentration. It finds that biodiesel produces fewer emissions than diesel fuel but higher NOx emissions.
Biodiesel production via transesterification of palm oilKátia Gabriel
The document summarizes research into producing biodiesel via transesterification of palm oil using sodium hydroxide loaded onto alumina (NaOH/Al2O3) catalysts. NaOH/Al2O3 catalysts were prepared by impregnating alumina with sodium hydroxide solutions then calcining. The catalysts were characterized and found to have basic sites suitable for transesterification. Parameters like methanol to oil ratio, catalyst amount, temperature and time were varied to determine optimum conditions. With the optimum conditions, a 99% conversion of palm oil to biodiesel was achieved.
This document discusses the production and properties of biodiesel from non-edible plant oils. It begins by introducing biodiesel as an alternative fuel and its environmental benefits compared to fossil fuels. It then discusses using non-edible oils instead of edible oils to produce biodiesel in order to avoid competition with food resources. The document evaluates various non-edible plant oils for biodiesel production and finds that Euphorbia lathyris oil has superior properties to other candidates tested. It concludes that E. lathyris is a promising biodiesel feedstock.
The document provides an overview of biodiesel, including its benefits, production process, specifications, quality standards, performance, and industry support. Key points covered include biodiesel being a renewable fuel produced from vegetable oils or animal fats through a chemical process, its environmental and energy security benefits, approval for use in diesel engines up to B20, and quality programs to ensure it meets industry standards.
Experimental Study of B20 Blend Honne Oil and Diesel Fuel with Cuo Nano Addit...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes an experimental study that tested the performance of a diesel engine using blends of Honne oil biodiesel and diesel fuel with the addition of copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles. Honne oil biodiesel was produced through a standard transesterification process from Honne oil seeds. B20 blend (20% biodiesel, 80% diesel) was tested along with additions of 25ppm, 50ppm and 75ppm of CuO nanoparticles. Experiments were conducted to analyze the impact on engine performance, exhaust emissions and combustion characteristics compared to neat biodiesel fuel. The results showed that CuO nanoparticle blended fuels had considerably higher brake thermal efficiency and lower harmful emissions compared to neat biod
Production and evaluation of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter)Alexander Decker
This document summarizes an experimental study on the production of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter) via transesterification. Key factors affecting the yield of biodiesel such as methanol to oil ratio, catalyst concentration, and operating temperature were investigated. The results showed that a methanol to oil ratio of 0.25v/v, catalyst concentration of 0.5 wt%, and temperature of 60°C provided optimal conditions for biodiesel yield. Under these conditions, palm oil produced a higher biodiesel yield of over 90% compared to ghee which had a lower yield. The biodiesel produced from both feedstocks met biodiesel standards according to analysis.
The document analyzes the performance and emissions of diesel blended with palm kernel oil and an additive. Palm kernel oil was blended with diesel in ratios from 10% to 30% by volume. The blends and pure diesel were tested in a single cylinder diesel engine. Key findings include:
1) The 25% palm kernel oil and 75% diesel blend (B25) showed a 19% reduction in smoke emissions and a 13.3% reduction in hydrocarbon emissions compared to pure diesel.
2) Adding an additive to the B25 blend further reduced smoke by 23.8% and hydrocarbons by 16% compared to pure diesel.
3) The B25 blend and B25 blend with additive showed reductions in carbon
IRJET- Influence of Al2O3 Nano Material Additives based Biodiesel Blends on t...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper that investigated the performance of a diesel engine using blends of biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil and dispersed with aluminum oxide nanoparticles. Biodiesel was produced through transesterification of waste cooking oil with methanol using a sodium hydroxide catalyst. The biodiesel was then blended with diesel in ratios of B10, B20, B30 and B40. Experimental testing of the blends in a single cylinder diesel engine found that the B40 blend achieved the highest thermal efficiency of 28.63%, outperforming neat diesel. The study evaluated properties and engine performance parameters like brake thermal efficiency and fuel consumption.
This document discusses biodiesel as an alternative fuel to diesel. It summarizes that biodiesel is produced through a chemical process called transesterification where vegetable oils or animal fats are combined with alcohol to form alkyl esters. Common feedstocks used for biodiesel production include soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and waste cooking oils. The document examines the transesterification reaction process and variables that impact biodiesel quality such as catalyst type and concentration. It finds that biodiesel produces fewer emissions than diesel fuel but higher NOx emissions.
Biodiesel production via transesterification of palm oilKátia Gabriel
The document summarizes research into producing biodiesel via transesterification of palm oil using sodium hydroxide loaded onto alumina (NaOH/Al2O3) catalysts. NaOH/Al2O3 catalysts were prepared by impregnating alumina with sodium hydroxide solutions then calcining. The catalysts were characterized and found to have basic sites suitable for transesterification. Parameters like methanol to oil ratio, catalyst amount, temperature and time were varied to determine optimum conditions. With the optimum conditions, a 99% conversion of palm oil to biodiesel was achieved.
This document discusses the production and properties of biodiesel from non-edible plant oils. It begins by introducing biodiesel as an alternative fuel and its environmental benefits compared to fossil fuels. It then discusses using non-edible oils instead of edible oils to produce biodiesel in order to avoid competition with food resources. The document evaluates various non-edible plant oils for biodiesel production and finds that Euphorbia lathyris oil has superior properties to other candidates tested. It concludes that E. lathyris is a promising biodiesel feedstock.
The document provides an overview of biodiesel, including its benefits, production process, specifications, quality standards, performance, and industry support. Key points covered include biodiesel being a renewable fuel produced from vegetable oils or animal fats through a chemical process, its environmental and energy security benefits, approval for use in diesel engines up to B20, and quality programs to ensure it meets industry standards.
Experimental Study of B20 Blend Honne Oil and Diesel Fuel with Cuo Nano Addit...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes an experimental study that tested the performance of a diesel engine using blends of Honne oil biodiesel and diesel fuel with the addition of copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles. Honne oil biodiesel was produced through a standard transesterification process from Honne oil seeds. B20 blend (20% biodiesel, 80% diesel) was tested along with additions of 25ppm, 50ppm and 75ppm of CuO nanoparticles. Experiments were conducted to analyze the impact on engine performance, exhaust emissions and combustion characteristics compared to neat biodiesel fuel. The results showed that CuO nanoparticle blended fuels had considerably higher brake thermal efficiency and lower harmful emissions compared to neat biod
This document summarizes an experimental investigation of performance parameters of a single cylinder internal combustion (IC) engine using mustard oil biodiesel. The researchers prepared biodiesel from mustard oil through a transesterification process and tested blends of 10-50% biodiesel with diesel. Test results showed that biodiesel blends had higher density and viscosity than diesel. Fuel consumption was also slightly higher for biodiesel blends due to their lower energy content. B10 and B20 blends performed most similar to diesel in terms of brake specific fuel consumption.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
1. The document analyzes the characteristics of oils from seven plant species for use in biodiesel production. It examines properties like free fatty acid content, iodine value, saponification value, cetane number, energy value and density.
2. Through transesterification reactions, fatty acid methyl esters were produced from the oils, with yields over 84% for some plant species.
3. The results validate that the oils from all seven plant species - Ricinus communis, Cocos nucifera, Brassica juncea, Arecaceae elaels, Helianthus annus, Madhuca longifolia and Pongamia pinnata - can
This document summarizes an experimental study on using Karanja oil methyl ester (KOME) as an alternative fuel in a compression ignition engine. KOME was produced through transesterification of Karanja oil with methanol using a calcium oxide catalyst. The properties of the biodiesel were tested and found to comply with biodiesel standards. Blends of KOME and diesel were tested in a single cylinder diesel engine. Results show that BTE was highest for B20 blends at both 200 and 225 bar injection pressures. BSFC was also closest to diesel for B20 blends. Exhaust gas temperatures increased with higher biodiesel content blends and engine load.
Venu Babu B and Dr Vaibhav V Goud from the Department of Chemical Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati presented work on synthesizing a bio-lubricant from castor oil methyl esters via epoxidation. They synthesized castor oil fatty acid methyl esters using a base-catalyzed transesterification reaction with KOH catalyst. The castor oil methyl esters were then structurally modified via an epoxidation reaction using ion-exchange resin as a catalyst to improve thermal and oxidative stability. Characterization of the modified and unmodified samples showed the epoxidized castor oil fatty acid methyl esters had improved properties making it a potential high-temperature
Evaluation of Biodiesel as an Alternate Fuel to Compression Ignition Engine a...IJMER
To meet increasing energy requirements, there has been growing interest in alternate fuels like biodiesel to provide a suitable diesel oil substitute for internal combustion engines. Biodiesel offer a very promising alternate to diesel oil since they are renewable and have similar properties. Further it can be used with/without any modifications to the engine. It is an oxygenated fuel and emissions of carbon monoxide are less unlike fossil fuels, the use of biodiesel does not contribute to global warming as CO2 emitted is once again absorbed by the plants grown for vegetable oil/biodiesel production, thus CO2 balance is maintained. In the present work the Honge and Jatropha Curcas oil (Biodiesel) at various blends is used with pure diesel to study its effect on performance and emission characteristics of the engine. The performance of the engine under different operating conditions and blends are compared by calculating the brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption by using pure diesel and adding various blends of Honge and Jatropha Curcas oil to diesel. The exhaust gas analyzers and smoke meters are used to find the percentage of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), Hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions.
This document outlines an experimental investigation on the performance and emissions of a diesel engine fueled with mahua oil methyl ester (biodiesel) and an additive. The objectives were to produce biodiesel from mahua oil via transesterification, characterize fuel properties, prepare test fuels as biodiesel blends, and test the blends in a diesel engine. Various engine performance and emission parameters were estimated using the blends and compared to diesel. The results showed that with increasing additive percentage in the biodiesel, engine performance improved with lower emissions. The conclusion was that mahua biodiesel with an additive can be a suitable alternative fuel for diesel engines.
IRJET- Biodiesel Production, Optimization and Fuel Properties Characteriz...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes research on optimizing the production of biodiesel from waste fish oil. Key findings include:
- Waste fish oil was extracted from fish parts and refined. It contains a mix of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
- A two-stage transesterification process using acid and base catalysts was employed to convert the waste fish oil to biodiesel due to its high free fatty acid content.
- Central composite design and response surface methodology were used to optimize the transesterification process parameters (methanol quantity, catalyst concentration, reaction time) to maximize biodiesel yield.
- The maximum predicted biodiesel yield of 94.091% was achieved at 20%
This document summarizes research on producing biodiesel from non-edible crude oils and evaluating its performance compared to diesel fuel. Specifically, it discusses how non-edible oils like neem, hemp and castor are converted to biodiesel via a transesterification process. It then compares various physicochemical properties of the resulting biodiesel like viscosity, density, cetane number, and sulfur content to those of diesel fuel. The conclusion is that while biodiesel from non-edible oils has some disadvantages in properties like higher viscosity, it can be used as a substitute for diesel with engine preheating and has benefits like lower emissions.
Comparative study of the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil.Alexander Decker
This document compares the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil. Palm oil and olive oil samples were subjected to methylene blue sensitized photoxidation to induce oxidation. Progress of the reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography, which showed that oxidation products formed in palm oil after 13 hours of irradiation and 10 hours for olive oil, indicating olive oil's lower oxidative stability. Analysis of the reaction mixtures and isolated oxidation products confirmed the formation of hydroperoxides during sensitization. Proton NMR spectra showed reductions in peaks corresponding to easily oxidizable groups in the oils, with more pronounced changes in olive oil, reflecting its higher level of unsaturated fatty acids and lower oxidative stability compared to palm oil.
Production and evaluation of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter)Alexander Decker
This document summarizes an experimental study on the production of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter) via transesterification. Key factors affecting the yield of biodiesel such as methanol to oil ratio, catalyst concentration, and operating temperature were investigated. The results showed that a methanol to oil ratio of 0.25v/v, catalyst concentration of 0.5 wt%, and temperature of 60°C provided optimal conditions for biodiesel yield. Under these conditions, palm oil produced a higher biodiesel yield of over 90% compared to ghee which had a lower yield. The biodiesel produced from both feedstocks met biodiesel standards according to characterization.
SiO2 beads decorated with SrO nanoparticles for biodiesel production finalAlex Tangy
This document summarizes a study on the development of a heterogeneous solid base catalyst comprising strontium oxide deposited on silica beads (SrO@SiO2) for the conversion of waste cooking oil to biodiesel under microwave irradiation. The catalyst was synthesized by depositing strontium carbonate nanoparticles on silica beads via a microwave irradiation method. The catalyst preparation was optimized with respect to irradiation time, calcination time and temperature, and the ratio of strontium precursor to silica beads. Characterization techniques confirmed the deposition of strontium oxide nanoparticles on the silica beads. Testing showed the SrO@SiO2 catalyst achieved waste cooking oil conversions as high as 99.4% in just 10 seconds of
Use of an Acylated Chitosan Schiff Base as an Ecofriendly Multifunctional Bio...Ishfaq Ahmad
This document summarizes the synthesis and characterization of two acylated chitosan Schiff base samples (ACSB-1 and ACSB-2) as potential multifunctional biolubricant additives. The ACSB samples were synthesized in two steps: first, reacting chitosan with 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde to form a chitosan Schiff base (CSB), then reacting the CSB with lauroyl chloride to form the final ACSB products. The ACSB samples were characterized using techniques such as FT-IR, CHN analysis, TG, and XRD. Evaluation of the ACSB
The document provides an overview of a training course on biodiesel fuel quality presented by the National Biodiesel Board. It discusses key diesel and biodiesel fuel properties, ASTM standards for biodiesel including D6751 and D975, the BQ-9000 quality program, factors that affect fuel quality such as contaminants, and results from various surveys of biodiesel fuel quality. The goal is to educate people on ensuring high quality biodiesel production and use.
Experimental Investigation on Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteri...ijsrd.com
Continuous rise in the conventional fuel prices and shortage of its supply have increased the interest in the field of the alternative sources for petroleum fuels. In this present work, experimentation was carried out to study the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of desert date biodiesel and its blends. For this experiment a single cylinder, four strokes, naturally aspired, direct injection, water cooled, eddy current dynamometer Kirloskar diesel engine at 1500 rpm for variable loads. Initially, desert date biodiesel and its blends were chosen. The physical and chemical properties of desert date biodiesel were determined. The tests were carried out over entire range of engine operation at varying conditions of load. The engine performance parameters studied were brake horse power, brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust temperature and mechanical efficiency. The emission characteristics studied are CO, HC, NOx and smoke opacity. These results are compared to those of pure diesel. These results are again compared to the other results of neat oils available in the literature for validation. By analyzing the graphs, it was observed that performance characteristics are reduced and emission characteristics are lowered compare to the diesel. This is mainly due to lower calorific value, higher viscosity and delayed combustion process. From the analysis of graphs it is observed that B10 and B20 blends are best suited for diesel engine. The present experimental results show that fish oil biodiesel and its blends can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engine.
IRJET- Manufacturing of Pongamia Oil based Bio-Lubricant for Machining Applic...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes research on manufacturing a bio-lubricant from pongamia oil for machining applications. Pongamia oil was chemically modified through epoxidation to increase its lubricating properties. Its flash point and viscosity increased after epoxidation, making it more suitable as a lubricant. Turning experiments were conducted using epoxidized pongamia oil, mineral oil, and no oil. Cutting force and surface roughness were measured and analyzed using Design of Experiments methods to identify optimal machining parameters for minimum force and roughness. Results showed that epoxidized pongamia oil performed comparably to mineral oil and provided an environmentally-friendly alternative for machining
IRJET- Production of Biodiesel using Mustard Oil and its Performance Evalu...IRJET Journal
The document discusses the production and performance evaluation of biodiesel made from mustard oil in a compression ignition (CI) engine. Specifically, it details the transesterification process used to produce biodiesel from mustard oil with methanol and sodium hydroxide catalyst. Various blends of mustard oil biodiesel and diesel (B10, B20, B30) were tested in a single cylinder CI engine. Key findings from the engine tests include brake thermal efficiency being highest for B30 compared to other blends and diesel, while brake specific fuel consumption was lowest for B30. Brake power also increased with load for all fuel samples.
This study examines the impact of amine and biological antioxidants on reducing NOx emissions in a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel from mango seeds. Three amine antioxidants (PPD, EDA, DPPD) and three biological antioxidants (DCM, α-T, L-asc.acid) were tested at five concentrations in B100 (100% mango biodiesel) and B20 (20% mango biodiesel, 80% diesel) fuels. Results showed the DPPD antioxidant at 0.025% concentration reduced NOx emissions the most, by 15.4% for B20 fuel and 39% for B100 fuel. DPPD also increased CO emissions
Biodiesel is heavier than diesel fuel so it should be blended on top of petroleum diesel in the tank. Biodiesel also has a higher pour point so it may need to be heated before blending, especially in cold climates. Blends will not separate in the presence of water but water in tanks can cause other problems. Only use fuels meeting Canadian specifications and blend to ensure even distribution throughout storage tanks. Commercial additives can improve the cold weather properties of distillate fuels in biodiesel blends.
The document provides guidance for biodiesel producers and blenders regarding EPA regulations. It outlines EPA's registration requirements for biodiesel producers under 40 CFR Parts 79 and 80. Producers must submit forms providing information on feedstocks, production processes, emissions testing, and ASTM D6751 compliance. It provides guidance for biodiesel blenders on handling, storage and quality. EPA is working to improve understanding of biodiesel's effects on emissions and harmonize standards through collaborative testing and engagement with standard-setting organizations.
GM supports the use of up to 5% biodiesel (B5) in all its diesel vehicles. While 5% biodiesel should not negatively impact durability if it meets ASTM standards, inconsistent blending methods could impact cloud point and fuel quality. Higher biodiesel blends raise cloud point and risk filter plugging at low temperatures due to increased wax precipitation. GM does not currently recommend additives for biodiesel blends.
1) Navistar supports the use of biodiesel blends up to B5 and recommends blends up to B20 if they meet ASTM and EMA specifications.
2) Biodiesel blends have different characteristics than diesel fuel and require specific storage, handling, and maintenance practices to avoid fuel system problems.
3) Biodiesel blends can provide emissions benefits but may increase NOx levels in some engines; impacts depend on the engine and technology.
This document summarizes an experimental investigation of performance parameters of a single cylinder internal combustion (IC) engine using mustard oil biodiesel. The researchers prepared biodiesel from mustard oil through a transesterification process and tested blends of 10-50% biodiesel with diesel. Test results showed that biodiesel blends had higher density and viscosity than diesel. Fuel consumption was also slightly higher for biodiesel blends due to their lower energy content. B10 and B20 blends performed most similar to diesel in terms of brake specific fuel consumption.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
1. The document analyzes the characteristics of oils from seven plant species for use in biodiesel production. It examines properties like free fatty acid content, iodine value, saponification value, cetane number, energy value and density.
2. Through transesterification reactions, fatty acid methyl esters were produced from the oils, with yields over 84% for some plant species.
3. The results validate that the oils from all seven plant species - Ricinus communis, Cocos nucifera, Brassica juncea, Arecaceae elaels, Helianthus annus, Madhuca longifolia and Pongamia pinnata - can
This document summarizes an experimental study on using Karanja oil methyl ester (KOME) as an alternative fuel in a compression ignition engine. KOME was produced through transesterification of Karanja oil with methanol using a calcium oxide catalyst. The properties of the biodiesel were tested and found to comply with biodiesel standards. Blends of KOME and diesel were tested in a single cylinder diesel engine. Results show that BTE was highest for B20 blends at both 200 and 225 bar injection pressures. BSFC was also closest to diesel for B20 blends. Exhaust gas temperatures increased with higher biodiesel content blends and engine load.
Venu Babu B and Dr Vaibhav V Goud from the Department of Chemical Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati presented work on synthesizing a bio-lubricant from castor oil methyl esters via epoxidation. They synthesized castor oil fatty acid methyl esters using a base-catalyzed transesterification reaction with KOH catalyst. The castor oil methyl esters were then structurally modified via an epoxidation reaction using ion-exchange resin as a catalyst to improve thermal and oxidative stability. Characterization of the modified and unmodified samples showed the epoxidized castor oil fatty acid methyl esters had improved properties making it a potential high-temperature
Evaluation of Biodiesel as an Alternate Fuel to Compression Ignition Engine a...IJMER
To meet increasing energy requirements, there has been growing interest in alternate fuels like biodiesel to provide a suitable diesel oil substitute for internal combustion engines. Biodiesel offer a very promising alternate to diesel oil since they are renewable and have similar properties. Further it can be used with/without any modifications to the engine. It is an oxygenated fuel and emissions of carbon monoxide are less unlike fossil fuels, the use of biodiesel does not contribute to global warming as CO2 emitted is once again absorbed by the plants grown for vegetable oil/biodiesel production, thus CO2 balance is maintained. In the present work the Honge and Jatropha Curcas oil (Biodiesel) at various blends is used with pure diesel to study its effect on performance and emission characteristics of the engine. The performance of the engine under different operating conditions and blends are compared by calculating the brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption by using pure diesel and adding various blends of Honge and Jatropha Curcas oil to diesel. The exhaust gas analyzers and smoke meters are used to find the percentage of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), Hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions.
This document outlines an experimental investigation on the performance and emissions of a diesel engine fueled with mahua oil methyl ester (biodiesel) and an additive. The objectives were to produce biodiesel from mahua oil via transesterification, characterize fuel properties, prepare test fuels as biodiesel blends, and test the blends in a diesel engine. Various engine performance and emission parameters were estimated using the blends and compared to diesel. The results showed that with increasing additive percentage in the biodiesel, engine performance improved with lower emissions. The conclusion was that mahua biodiesel with an additive can be a suitable alternative fuel for diesel engines.
IRJET- Biodiesel Production, Optimization and Fuel Properties Characteriz...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes research on optimizing the production of biodiesel from waste fish oil. Key findings include:
- Waste fish oil was extracted from fish parts and refined. It contains a mix of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
- A two-stage transesterification process using acid and base catalysts was employed to convert the waste fish oil to biodiesel due to its high free fatty acid content.
- Central composite design and response surface methodology were used to optimize the transesterification process parameters (methanol quantity, catalyst concentration, reaction time) to maximize biodiesel yield.
- The maximum predicted biodiesel yield of 94.091% was achieved at 20%
This document summarizes research on producing biodiesel from non-edible crude oils and evaluating its performance compared to diesel fuel. Specifically, it discusses how non-edible oils like neem, hemp and castor are converted to biodiesel via a transesterification process. It then compares various physicochemical properties of the resulting biodiesel like viscosity, density, cetane number, and sulfur content to those of diesel fuel. The conclusion is that while biodiesel from non-edible oils has some disadvantages in properties like higher viscosity, it can be used as a substitute for diesel with engine preheating and has benefits like lower emissions.
Comparative study of the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil.Alexander Decker
This document compares the oxidative stabilities of palm oil and olive oil. Palm oil and olive oil samples were subjected to methylene blue sensitized photoxidation to induce oxidation. Progress of the reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography, which showed that oxidation products formed in palm oil after 13 hours of irradiation and 10 hours for olive oil, indicating olive oil's lower oxidative stability. Analysis of the reaction mixtures and isolated oxidation products confirmed the formation of hydroperoxides during sensitization. Proton NMR spectra showed reductions in peaks corresponding to easily oxidizable groups in the oils, with more pronounced changes in olive oil, reflecting its higher level of unsaturated fatty acids and lower oxidative stability compared to palm oil.
Production and evaluation of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter)Alexander Decker
This document summarizes an experimental study on the production of biodiesel from palm oil and ghee (clarified butter) via transesterification. Key factors affecting the yield of biodiesel such as methanol to oil ratio, catalyst concentration, and operating temperature were investigated. The results showed that a methanol to oil ratio of 0.25v/v, catalyst concentration of 0.5 wt%, and temperature of 60°C provided optimal conditions for biodiesel yield. Under these conditions, palm oil produced a higher biodiesel yield of over 90% compared to ghee which had a lower yield. The biodiesel produced from both feedstocks met biodiesel standards according to characterization.
SiO2 beads decorated with SrO nanoparticles for biodiesel production finalAlex Tangy
This document summarizes a study on the development of a heterogeneous solid base catalyst comprising strontium oxide deposited on silica beads (SrO@SiO2) for the conversion of waste cooking oil to biodiesel under microwave irradiation. The catalyst was synthesized by depositing strontium carbonate nanoparticles on silica beads via a microwave irradiation method. The catalyst preparation was optimized with respect to irradiation time, calcination time and temperature, and the ratio of strontium precursor to silica beads. Characterization techniques confirmed the deposition of strontium oxide nanoparticles on the silica beads. Testing showed the SrO@SiO2 catalyst achieved waste cooking oil conversions as high as 99.4% in just 10 seconds of
Use of an Acylated Chitosan Schiff Base as an Ecofriendly Multifunctional Bio...Ishfaq Ahmad
This document summarizes the synthesis and characterization of two acylated chitosan Schiff base samples (ACSB-1 and ACSB-2) as potential multifunctional biolubricant additives. The ACSB samples were synthesized in two steps: first, reacting chitosan with 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde to form a chitosan Schiff base (CSB), then reacting the CSB with lauroyl chloride to form the final ACSB products. The ACSB samples were characterized using techniques such as FT-IR, CHN analysis, TG, and XRD. Evaluation of the ACSB
The document provides an overview of a training course on biodiesel fuel quality presented by the National Biodiesel Board. It discusses key diesel and biodiesel fuel properties, ASTM standards for biodiesel including D6751 and D975, the BQ-9000 quality program, factors that affect fuel quality such as contaminants, and results from various surveys of biodiesel fuel quality. The goal is to educate people on ensuring high quality biodiesel production and use.
Experimental Investigation on Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteri...ijsrd.com
Continuous rise in the conventional fuel prices and shortage of its supply have increased the interest in the field of the alternative sources for petroleum fuels. In this present work, experimentation was carried out to study the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of desert date biodiesel and its blends. For this experiment a single cylinder, four strokes, naturally aspired, direct injection, water cooled, eddy current dynamometer Kirloskar diesel engine at 1500 rpm for variable loads. Initially, desert date biodiesel and its blends were chosen. The physical and chemical properties of desert date biodiesel were determined. The tests were carried out over entire range of engine operation at varying conditions of load. The engine performance parameters studied were brake horse power, brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust temperature and mechanical efficiency. The emission characteristics studied are CO, HC, NOx and smoke opacity. These results are compared to those of pure diesel. These results are again compared to the other results of neat oils available in the literature for validation. By analyzing the graphs, it was observed that performance characteristics are reduced and emission characteristics are lowered compare to the diesel. This is mainly due to lower calorific value, higher viscosity and delayed combustion process. From the analysis of graphs it is observed that B10 and B20 blends are best suited for diesel engine. The present experimental results show that fish oil biodiesel and its blends can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engine.
IRJET- Manufacturing of Pongamia Oil based Bio-Lubricant for Machining Applic...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes research on manufacturing a bio-lubricant from pongamia oil for machining applications. Pongamia oil was chemically modified through epoxidation to increase its lubricating properties. Its flash point and viscosity increased after epoxidation, making it more suitable as a lubricant. Turning experiments were conducted using epoxidized pongamia oil, mineral oil, and no oil. Cutting force and surface roughness were measured and analyzed using Design of Experiments methods to identify optimal machining parameters for minimum force and roughness. Results showed that epoxidized pongamia oil performed comparably to mineral oil and provided an environmentally-friendly alternative for machining
IRJET- Production of Biodiesel using Mustard Oil and its Performance Evalu...IRJET Journal
The document discusses the production and performance evaluation of biodiesel made from mustard oil in a compression ignition (CI) engine. Specifically, it details the transesterification process used to produce biodiesel from mustard oil with methanol and sodium hydroxide catalyst. Various blends of mustard oil biodiesel and diesel (B10, B20, B30) were tested in a single cylinder CI engine. Key findings from the engine tests include brake thermal efficiency being highest for B30 compared to other blends and diesel, while brake specific fuel consumption was lowest for B30. Brake power also increased with load for all fuel samples.
This study examines the impact of amine and biological antioxidants on reducing NOx emissions in a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel from mango seeds. Three amine antioxidants (PPD, EDA, DPPD) and three biological antioxidants (DCM, α-T, L-asc.acid) were tested at five concentrations in B100 (100% mango biodiesel) and B20 (20% mango biodiesel, 80% diesel) fuels. Results showed the DPPD antioxidant at 0.025% concentration reduced NOx emissions the most, by 15.4% for B20 fuel and 39% for B100 fuel. DPPD also increased CO emissions
Biodiesel is heavier than diesel fuel so it should be blended on top of petroleum diesel in the tank. Biodiesel also has a higher pour point so it may need to be heated before blending, especially in cold climates. Blends will not separate in the presence of water but water in tanks can cause other problems. Only use fuels meeting Canadian specifications and blend to ensure even distribution throughout storage tanks. Commercial additives can improve the cold weather properties of distillate fuels in biodiesel blends.
The document provides guidance for biodiesel producers and blenders regarding EPA regulations. It outlines EPA's registration requirements for biodiesel producers under 40 CFR Parts 79 and 80. Producers must submit forms providing information on feedstocks, production processes, emissions testing, and ASTM D6751 compliance. It provides guidance for biodiesel blenders on handling, storage and quality. EPA is working to improve understanding of biodiesel's effects on emissions and harmonize standards through collaborative testing and engagement with standard-setting organizations.
GM supports the use of up to 5% biodiesel (B5) in all its diesel vehicles. While 5% biodiesel should not negatively impact durability if it meets ASTM standards, inconsistent blending methods could impact cloud point and fuel quality. Higher biodiesel blends raise cloud point and risk filter plugging at low temperatures due to increased wax precipitation. GM does not currently recommend additives for biodiesel blends.
1) Navistar supports the use of biodiesel blends up to B5 and recommends blends up to B20 if they meet ASTM and EMA specifications.
2) Biodiesel blends have different characteristics than diesel fuel and require specific storage, handling, and maintenance practices to avoid fuel system problems.
3) Biodiesel blends can provide emissions benefits but may increase NOx levels in some engines; impacts depend on the engine and technology.
This document provides a checklist for inspecting tank cars during transport. The checklist includes over 30 items to verify including proper placards, seals, valves, hoses, samples, gauges, pressure levels, car brakes and more. Completing the checklist verifies the tank car is properly prepared, loaded, unloaded and cleaned according to safety standards before releasing the car.
Goodyear offers a variety of hoses for petroleum dispensing, including hoses compatible with biodiesel and E85 fuels. Their hoses provide solutions for fuel dispensing needs and come with a large distributor network for support. Goodyear is a single source for both vapor recovery and standard petroleum hoses, and they provide products, expertise, and reliability to customers.
1. The document discusses biodiesel, including its production process, properties, emissions benefits, and applications as an alternative fuel.
2. Biodiesel is produced through a transesterification process where vegetable oils or animal fats are chemically reacted with an alcohol like methanol or ethanol in the presence of a catalyst, producing esters (biodiesel) and glycerin.
3. Biodiesel has similar properties to conventional diesel, including energy content and cetane number. It provides substantial reductions in emissions and can be used in existing diesel engines with little or no modifications.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
The document discusses biodiesel, including its production process, properties, and advantages over petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is produced through a chemical process called transesterification where triglycerides from oils react with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol in the presence of a catalyst. This produces fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerin. Biodiesel has benefits like being renewable, biodegradable, non-toxic, and producing lower emissions than petroleum diesel. The document also outlines some challenges with biodiesel like potential habitat destruction if grown on a large scale and increased corrosion.
This document discusses biodiesel, which is a liquid fuel produced from vegetable oils or animal fats through a process called transesterification. Transesterification involves exchanging the alkoxy group of an alcohol, often using an acid or base catalyst. The document examines the characteristics and properties of biodiesel, including that it is immiscible with water and has a higher flash point than conventional diesel. Biodiesel can be used alone or blended with conventional diesel in varying percentages. Response surface methodology was applied to optimize biodiesel production from different feedstocks and found that temperature, alcohol-to-oil ratio, and catalyst concentration significantly impacted yields.
What It Is and How It Is Made
Learn the basics of biodiesel including biodiesel markets and benefits, production technologies, quality control, distribution and storage issues. A replay of the actual lecture can be found at: www.pccbusiness.com/green
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
This chapter discusses biodiesel production from oils and fats. It begins by defining biodiesel and describing its advantages over petroleum diesel, such as lower toxicity and air pollution. The chapter then covers the chemistry and properties of triglycerides, fatty acids, and glycerol that make up oils and fats. It also outlines the transesterification process used to convert these feedstocks into biodiesel and glycerol. Finally, it discusses standards and specifications for biodiesel and important concepts learned from the chapter like biodiesel chemistry and production processes.
A Comparative Analysis of Compression Ignition Engine Characteristics Using P...Editor IJMTER
This paper investigate the scope of utilizing biodiesel with high bland (B20 & B40)
developed from the Methyle alcohol from pongamia oils as an alternative diesel fuel. The major
problem of using neat pongamia oil as a fuel in a compression ignition engine arises due to its very
high viscosity. Transesterification with alcohols reduces the viscosity of the oil and other properties
have been evaluated to be comparable with those of diesel. In the present project work, an
experimental investigation is carried out on performance and emission characteristics of preheated
higher blends of pongamia biodiesel with diesel. The higher blends of fuel is preheated at 60, 75, 90
and 110˚C temperature using waste exhaust gas heat in a shell and tube heat exchanger.
Transesterification process is used to produce biodiesel required for the project from raw pongamia
oil. Experiments were done using B20 and B40 biodiesel blends at different preheating temperature
and for different loading. A significant improvement in performance and emission characteristics of
preheated B40 blend was obtained. B40 blend preheated to 110˚C showed maximum 8.72% and
8.97% increase in brake thermal efficiency over diesel and B20 blend respectively at 75% load. Also
the highest reduction in UBHC emission and smoke opacity values are obtained as 79.41% and
80.6% respectively over diesel and 78.12% and 73.54% respectively over B20 blend for B40 blend
preheated to 110˚C at 75% load. Thus preheating of higher blends of diesel and biodiesel at higher
temperature improves the viscosity and other properties sharply and improves the performance and
emission.
Requirement of alternatives of conventional petrol and diesel is increasing day by day with increase in pollution. To overcome this situation alternative fuel is best way of future fuel - It prevents pollution also clean burning properties as a fuel.
It is Modern Era of Fuel.
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fats through a chemical process. It can be used in diesel engines and vehicles alone or blended with petrodiesel. Biodiesel produces lower emissions than petrodiesel, reducing harmful emissions like particulate matter, carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and decreasing the carcinogenic properties of diesel. However, biodiesel may increase nitrogen oxide emissions slightly. Biodiesel is more biodegradable than petrodiesel and is considered more environmentally friendly.
The document summarizes an experimental study analyzing the emission characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine fueled with biodiesel made from Mahua oil methyl ester (MOME). Key findings include:
- Tests on a single cylinder diesel engine showed that neat MOME biodiesel produced lower carbon monoxide, smoke opacity, and particulate emissions than petrodiesel, but higher oxides of nitrogen emissions.
- Emissions generally improved with increasing percentages of MOME biodiesel blended with petrodiesel.
- The study concludes that MOME biodiesel is a viable alternative fuel that provides emission benefits over petrodiesel.
Biodiesel is a cleaner-burning diesel replacement fuel made from vegetable oils and animal fats through a process called trans-esterification. It can be blended with petroleum diesel up to 20% without engine modifications. Biodiesel reduces emissions compared to petroleum diesel, though nitrogen oxide emissions may increase at higher blend levels. It has similar physical properties as diesel, operating in compression-ignition engines.
IRJET- Transesterification of Waste Frying Oil for the Production of Biodiese...IRJET Journal
The document discusses producing biodiesel from waste vegetable oil through a transesterification process. Key points:
- Waste vegetable oil is collected and pretreated by filtration and heating to remove particles and water.
- A titration process determines the free fatty acid content to calculate the amount of catalyst needed.
- In a transesterification reaction, the waste oil reacts with methanol and a sodium hydroxide catalyst to produce biodiesel and glycerin.
- The biodiesel's properties are tested and found to have better flash point, cloud point, and cetane number compared to diesel fuel. Biodiesel produced is a viable alternative fuel for diesel engines.
This document provides an overview of biodiesel, including:
1) Biodiesel is a renewable fuel made from vegetable oils or animal fats that can be used as a substitute for or blended with petroleum diesel.
2) Biodiesel offers benefits like reduced emissions, energy security, and support for domestic jobs and rural economies.
3) For best performance and engine compatibility, biodiesel should meet ASTM quality standards and be from BQ-9000 certified producers. Blends up to B20 are widely supported, with some vehicles approved for higher blends or pure biodiesel.
Performance, Combustion and Emission Evaluation of Fish and Corn Oil as subst...IDES Editor
The indiscriminate usage of fossil fuels in many
countries has led to an increased interest in the search for
suitable alternative fuels. Methyl Esters of Vegetable oils and
Animal fats are found to be good alternative, renewable and
environmental friendly fuels for C.I. engines.
This paper presents the results of investigation carried
out in studying the properties and behavior of methyl esters
of corn seed oil, fish oil and its blends with diesel fuel in a C
I Engine. Engine tests have been carried out to determine the
performance, emission and combustion characteristics of the
above mentioned fuels.
The tests have been carried out in a 4-stroke,
computerized, single cylinder, constant speed, direct injection
diesel engine at different loads. The loads were varied from
0% to 100% of the maximum load in steps of 25%. The Methyl
Ester blends of 10%, 20% and 30% by volume with diesel were
used. The engine test parameters were recorded with the help
of engine analysis software and were studied with the help of
graphs.
The results showed that the properties of the above mentioned
oils are comparable with conventional diesel. The 20% blend
performed well in running a diesel engine at a constant speed
of 1500 rpm. It substantially reduced the emissions with
acceptable efficiency. Hence the oils can be used as suitable
additives for diesel in compression ignition engine.
Production of Biodiesel using waste temple oil from Shani Shingnapur temple (...IJEAB
In India, due to various mythological and religious reasons hundreds of devotees pour oil over the idols in Hanuman or Maruti and Shani temples. The oil once poured cannot be reutilized and was ultimately wasted. These waste temple oil from Shani Shingnapurwas used to produce biodiesel. Immobilized Pseudomonas aeruginosa was used to catalyze transesterification of waste temple oil. The cells of P.aeruginosa were immobilized within the sodium alginate. Biodiesel production and its applications were gaining popularity in recent years due to decreased petroleum based reserves. Biodiesel cost formed from waste temple oil was higher than that of fossil fuel, because of high raw material cost.To decrease the cost of biofuel, waste temple oil was used as alternative as feedstock. It has lower emission of pollutants; it is biodegradable and enhances engine lubricity. Waste temple oil contains triglycerides that were used for biodiesel production by chemical and biological method.Transesterification reaction of oil produces methyl esters that are substitutes for fatty acid alkyl biodiesel fuel. Characteristics of oil were studied such as specific gravity, viscosity, acid number, saponification number.Parameters such as temperature,oil: methanol ratio were studied and 88%, 96% of biodiesel yield was obtained with effect of temperature and oil: methanol ratio on transesterification reaction. Withaddition ofNaOH or KOH to fatty acids which formed salt known as soap,which is excellent emulsifying and cleaning agents.
Experimental Investigation on Use of Honge(Pongamia) Biodiesel on Multi-cylin...ijsrd.com
Experimental investigation was conducted on a multicylinder diesel engine using honge biodiesel derived from the Pongamia plant. Honge biodiesel was produced using a transesterification process and its properties were tested and found to meet ASTM biodiesel standards. The honge biodiesel was then tested in the diesel engine at varying loads up to 60% throttle. Performance parameters like brake thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption were evaluated, as well as emission characteristics like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and smoke opacity. Combustion characteristics such as cylinder pressure, heat release rate, and gas temperature were also analyzed against crank angle. The results showed that honge
This document discusses biofuels and biodiesel production. It defines biofuels as transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel that are made from biomass materials. The document outlines the process of biodiesel production, including using vegetable oils or animal fats and an alcohol like methanol through a transesterification process. It discusses important characteristics of biodiesel like viscosity, density, flash point and others. The advantages of biodiesel include being renewable, having lower emissions than diesel, and able to be used in conventional diesel engines. Disadvantages include slightly higher fuel consumption and issues with long term storage.
Performance Analysis of Emissions using Bio-Diesels as Fuel for different Com...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes research on the performance analysis of emissions using bio-diesels as fuel in diesel engines with different compression ratios. It discusses how smoke, NOx, CO, brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, and exhaust gas temperature are affected by varying the compression ratio when using blends of jatropha and mahua oils compared to diesel fuel. The document also reviews literature on using vegetable oils as fuels in diesel engines and the process of biodiesel production through transesterification. Experimental results show that bio-diesel blends produce lower emissions of CO, HC and higher emissions of CO2 and O2 compared to diesel fuel due to the oxygen content of bio-diesels.
This document provides an overview of a training course on biodiesel engine and fleet performance presented by the National Biodiesel Board. The objectives are to provide expert answers on biodiesel use, introduce diesel technician training resources, and discuss fleet experiences with biodiesel. Key topics covered include biodiesel properties, engine manufacturer positions on biodiesel blends, and technical guidance from a biodiesel evaluation team on ensuring proper fuel quality and maintenance practices when adopting biodiesel.
This document provides an overview of a training course on biodiesel vehicle maintenance presented by the National Biodiesel Board. The learning objectives are to provide technical instruction on biodiesel's impact on vehicle maintenance, troubleshooting, and fuel filtration. Topics covered include the fuel system, lubrication oil, cold weather performance, and lower emissions with biodiesel. Biodiesel is noted to have similar properties to diesel, with benefits such as natural lubricity and lower sulfur levels.
This document provides information on a training course titled "Biodiesel Fuel Quality & BQ-9000" presented by the National Biodiesel Board. The objectives of the course are to instruct attendees on diesel and biodiesel fuel properties, how these properties affect fuel quality and filtration, and details on the BQ-9000 biodiesel quality program. Key topics that will be covered include ASTM biodiesel specifications, critical fuel quality parameters and their importance, biodiesel's enhanced lubricity, and its performance in low temperature operation.
This document discusses the benefits of biodiesel fuel. It provides 10 key reasons why customers are using biodiesel, including that it is categorized as an advanced biofuel under the Renewable Fuel Standard, has significantly lower carbon emissions than petroleum diesel, has a high energy balance returning over 5 units of energy for every 1 unit used to produce it, and supports sustainability and energy security by providing a domestic fuel source. The document is intended to educate technicians and customers on the technical and environmental benefits of biodiesel.
The document provides an overview of the National Biodiesel Board and biodiesel. It discusses that the NBB lobbies for and markets biodiesel in the US, funded by soybean farmers, grants, and biodiesel producers. The presentation aims to educate technicians about biodiesel production, quality standards, benefits including environmental and performance, and OEM support of biodiesel blends. It emphasizes that biodiesel must meet ASTM D6751 specifications and come from BQ-9000 certified suppliers to function properly in diesel engines.
This document provides an overview of a technical training course on exhaust after-treatment and biodiesel. The course will cover changes in diesel engine emissions regulations, basics of diesel engine emissions and required hardware changes, methods of exhaust after-treatment, interactions between fuels and fuel systems, and resources. It will aim to provide industry experts to answer questions and introduce the National Biodiesel Board's diesel technician training program.
The document provides information about a technical training course on biodiesel fleet studies presented by the National Biodiesel Board. The NBB receives funding from soybean check-off programs, government grants, and biodiesel producer contributions for technical, regulatory, marketing, and lobbying efforts. The course objectives are to provide access to industry experts, introduce their diesel technician training program, and provide information on fleets using biodiesel blends. Learning outcomes include identifying public and private fleets using biodiesel, explaining changes to fleet maintenance programs when switching to biodiesel, and properly diagnosing and recommending biodiesel use.
The document provides an overview of biodiesel technical training on understanding diesel fuel presented by the National Biodiesel Board. It discusses the objectives to understand diesel and biodiesel fuel quality standards and their effects on engine performance and emissions. Key points covered include ASTM fuel specifications for diesel including cetane number, distillation temperatures, viscosity, carbon residue and sulfur content which impact engine operation. It also discusses emissions regulations that have made diesel fuel requirements more stringent over time.
The document presents the findings of an agricultural off-road biodiesel demonstration project in Saskatchewan. It evaluates the use of biodiesel blends (B5-B20) in agricultural tractors and equipment. Fuel was sampled from producer bulk tanks and equipment fuel tanks at various farms. Testing evaluated fuel quality parameters such as oxidation stability, acid levels, and water content. Results showed biodiesel blends maintained acceptable fuel quality with no operational issues reported throughout the winter demonstration period.
The document provides information for diesel technicians about biodiesel, including its production process, properties, standards, and benefits. It summarizes that biodiesel is made through a chemical process called transesterification that combines vegetable oils or animal fats with methanol to produce biodiesel and glycerin. Biodiesel can be blended with petrodiesel in any amount, has similar fuel properties as petrodiesel but with improved lubricity and lower emissions. Industry standards like ASTM D6751 and the voluntary BQ-9000 program help ensure biodiesel quality.
The document discusses biodiesel production methods. There are three routes: base catalyzed transesterification using alcohol which is the most common and economic method; direct acid catalyzed esterification; and converting the oil to fatty acids then alkyl esters. The base catalyzed process reacts a fat or oil with an alcohol like methanol using a catalyst like sodium or potassium hydroxide to produce biodiesel and glycerine in a low temperature and pressure process with high conversion rates.
The document analyzes the effect of biodiesel on exhaust emissions from diesel vehicles. It uses statistical analysis of existing emissions test data to estimate how regulated pollutants like NOx, PM, HC and CO change as the percentage of biodiesel in fuel is increased. For a 20% biodiesel blend, estimates indicate NOx increases 2% while PM, HC and CO decrease over 10%, 20% and 10% respectively. Fuel economy is also estimated to decrease 1-2% with a 20% biodiesel blend. The analysis focuses on heavy-duty highway engines as most available data is from these, but effects may differ for future engine technologies and nonroad/light-duty engines.
The document provides guidance for biodiesel producers and blenders regarding EPA regulations. It outlines EPA's registration requirements for biodiesel producers under 40 CFR Parts 79 and 80. Producers must submit forms, provide information on feedstocks and processes, and ensure biodiesel meets ASTM D6751 standards. It also provides guidance for biodiesel blenders on handling, storage and quality concerns. EPA is working to better understand biodiesel's effects on emissions and harmonize fuel standards through testing programs and engagement with standard-setting organizations.
The document is a resource guide from the U.S. Department of Energy that provides information on heavy vehicles and engines with alternative fuel and advanced powertrain options. It includes contact information for vehicle and engine manufacturers, organizations involved in alternative fuels, and government agencies. It also has a glossary of terms, emission standards chart, and listings of alternative fuel engine and vehicle models.
Biodiesel has been extensively tested by the EPA and is shown to significantly reduce harmful emissions compared to conventional diesel. EPA data shows biodiesel reduces particulate matter by 47% and carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons each by about 50%. It also essentially eliminates sulfur emissions and reduces cancer-causing PAHs and nPAHs by 75-90%. The only pollutant that may increase is NOx, which increases about 10% for pure biodiesel but biodiesel allows use of technologies to control NOx not possible with conventional diesel.
The City of Keene, NH has been using B20 biodiesel in its vehicles and equipment for over 5 years. It started with a small grant from the state of NH and has since used over 200,000 gallons of B20 biodiesel. B20 runs in existing unmodified diesel engines, integrates with existing fuel infrastructure, and provides benefits like reduced emissions, lubricity, and being renewable. The City has 68 vehicles and pieces of equipment running on B20 with no reported problems.
The document is a resource guide from the U.S. Department of Energy that provides information on heavy vehicles and engines with alternative fuel and advanced powertrain options. It includes contact information for vehicle and engine manufacturers, organizations involved in alternative fuels, and government agencies. It also has emissions standards charts and lists product information for alternative fuel engines, natural gas and propane vehicles, and hybrid, electric, and fuel cell vehicles.
1. 1192 Energy & Fuels 2005, 19, 1192-1200
Lubricity of Components of Biodiesel and Petrodiesel.
The Origin of Biodiesel Lubricity†
Gerhard Knothe* and Kevin R. Steidley
National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Illinois 61604
Received December 3, 2004. Revised Manuscript Received February 18, 2005
An alternative diesel fuel that is steadily gaining attention and significance is biodiesel, which
is defined as the monoalkyl esters of vegetable oils and animal fats. Previous literature states
that low blend levels of biodiesel can restore lubricity to (ultra-)low-sulfur petroleum-derived
diesel (petrodiesel) fuels, which have poor lubricity. This feature has been discussed as a major
technical advantage of biodiesel. In this work, the lubricity of numerous fatty compounds was
studied and compared to that of hydrocarbon compounds found in petrodiesel. The effects of
blending compounds found in biodiesel on petrodiesel lubricity were also studied. Lubricity was
determined using the high-frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR) test. Dibenzothiophene, which is
contained in nondesulfurized petrodiesel, does not enhance petrodiesel lubricity. Fatty compounds
possess better lubricity than hydrocarbons, because of their polarity-imparting O atoms. Neat
free fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, and glycerol possess better lubricity than neat esters, because
of their free OH groups. Lubricity improves somewhat with the chain length and the presence of
double bonds. An order of oxygenated moieties enhancing lubricity (COOH > CHO > OH >
COOCH3 > CdO > C-O-C) was obtained from studying various oxygenated C10 compounds.
Results on neat C3 compounds with OH, NH2, and SH groups show that oxygen enhances lubricity
more than nitrogen and sulfur. Adding commercial biodiesel improves lubricity of low-sulfur
petrodiesel more than neat fatty esters, indicating that other biodiesel components cause lubricity
enhancement at low biodiesel blend levels. Adding glycerol to a neat ester and then adding this
mixture at low blend levels to low-lubricity petrodiesel did not improve petrodiesel lubricity.
However, adding polar compounds such as free fatty acids or monoacylglycerols improves the
lubricity of low-level blends of esters in low-lubricity petrodiesel. Thus, some species (free fatty
acids, monoacylglycerols) considered contaminants resulting from biodiesel production are
responsible for the lubricity of low-level blends of biodiesel in (ultra-)low-sulfur petrodiesel.
Commercial biodiesel is required at a level of 1%-2% in low-lubricity petrodiesel, which exceeds
the typical additive level, to attain the lubricity-imparting additive level of biodiesel contaminants
in petrodiesel.
Introduction trace materials are limited in biodiesel standards such
as the American Society for Testing and Materials
Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel obtained through
(ASTM) standard D-6751 and the European standard
the transesterification of vegetable oils or other materi-
EN 14214, as well as other standards under develop-
als largely comprised of triacylglycerols (also known as
ment around the world. Table 1 lists these specifications
triglycerides), such as animal fats or used frying oils,
in ASTM D-6751 and EN 14214.
with monohydric alcohols to give the corresponding
The production and use of biodiesel have increased
monoalkyl esters.1,2 As a result of the transesterification
significantly in many countries around the world and
reaction, biodiesel contains small amounts of glycerol,
it is in nascent status in numerous others. Biodiesel is
free fatty acids, partially reacted acylglycerols (mono-
technically competitive with conventional, petroleum-
acylglycerols and diacylglycerols), as well as residual
derived diesel fuel (petrodiesel) and requires virtually
starting material (triacylglycerols). These contaminating
no changes in the fuel distribution infrastructure.
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone: 309- Although biodiesel faces some technical challenges, such
681-6112. Fax: 309-681-6340. E-mail: knothegh@ncaur.usda.gov. as reducing NOx exhaust emissions, improving cold flow
† Disclaimer: Product names are necessary to report factually on
properties, and enhancing oxidative stability, the ad-
available data; however, the USDA neither guarantees nor warrants
the standard of the product, and the use of the name by USDA implies vantages of biodiesel, compared to petrodiesel, include
no approval of the product to the exclusion of others that may also be the reduction of most exhaust emissions, biodegrad-
suitable.
(1) Knothe, G.; Dunn, R. O. Biofuels Derived from Vegetable Oils
ability, a higher flash point, and domestic origin.1,2 It
and Fats. In Oleochemical Manufacture and Applications; Gunstone, was also reported that neat biodiesel possesses inher-
F. D., Hamilton, R. J., Eds:; Sheffield Academic Press: Sheffield, U.K., ently greater lubricity than petrodiesel, especially low-
2001; pp 106-163.
(2) Dunn, R. O.; Knothe, G. Alternative Diesel Fuels from Vegetable sulfur petrodiesel, and that adding biodiesel at low
Oils and Animal Fats. J. Oleo Sci. 2001, 50, 415-426. blend levels (1%-2%) to low-sulfur petrodiesel restores
10.1021/ef049684c This article not subject to U.S. Copyright. Published 2005 by the American Chemical Society
Published on Web 04/06/2005
2. Lubricity of Biodiesel and Petrodiesel Components Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 1193
Table 1. Specifications Limiting Fatty Contaminants in Biodiesel Standards
ASTMa Standard D-6751 (United States) EN Standard 14214 (Europe)
specification test method unit limit test method unit limit
acid number D664 mg KOH/g 0.80 max EN14104 mg KOH/g 0.50
free glycerol D6584 % mass 0.02 EN 14105/EN 14106 % (m/m) 0.02
total glycerol D6584 % mass 0.24 EN 14105 % (m/m) 0.25
monoglyceride content EN 14105 % (m/m) 0.80
diglyceride content EN 14105 % (m/m) 0.20
triglyceride content EN 14105 % (m/m) 0.20
a ASTM ) American Society for Testing and Materials.
lubricity to the latter3-13 or aviation fuel.14 Such ef- lubrication behavior of sunflower oil formulations.27,28
fectiveness was reported for even lower (<1%) blend Esters of vegetable oils with hydroxylated fatty acids
levels15-17 or higher (10%-20%) levels.18,19 These results such as castor and lesquerella oils improved lubricity
seem to imply that the alkyl esters that largely comprise at lower levels than the esters of nonhydroxylated
biodiesel are responsible for this lubricity enhancement. vegetable oils.9,13 Oxidized biodiesel showed improved
On the other hand, individual fatty acid methyl esters lubricity, compared to its non-oxidized counterpart.29
were reported to have little effect.20 However, adding The lubricity issue is significant, because the advent
free fatty acids or other selected oxygenated compounds of low-sulfur petrodiesel fuels and, more recently, ul-
to low-lubricity petrodiesel at additive levels enhances tralow-sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuels, as required by regu-
lubricity.21-26 Free fatty acids enhanced the boundary lations in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere, has
led to the failure of engine parts such as fuel injectors
(3) Schumacher, L. Biodiesel Lubricity. In The Biodiesel Handbook; and pumps, because they are lubricated by the fuel
Knothe, G., Krahl, J., Van Gerpen, J., Eds.; AOCS Press: Champaign,
IL, 2005; pp 137-144. itself. The poor lubricity of low-sulfur petrodiesel4,30-37
(4) Lacey, P. I.; Westbrook, S. R. Lubricity Requirement of Low requires additives or blending with another fuel of
Sulfur Diesel Fuels. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1995, 950248.
(5) Galbraith, R. M. C.; Hertz, P. B. The Rocle Test for Diesel and
sufficient lubricity to regain lubricity. The reason for
Bio-Diesel Fuel Lubricity. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1997, 972904. the poor lubricity of low-sulfur petrodiesel is not the
(6) Waynick, J. A. Evaluation of the Stability, Lubricity, and Cold removal of the sulfur-containing compounds but rather
Flow Properties of Biodiesel Fuel. In Proceedings of the 6th Interna-
tional Conference on Stability and Handling of Liquid Fuels, 1997. that polar compounds with other heteroatoms such as
(7) Hillion, G.; Montagne, X.; Marchand, P. Methyl Esters of Plant oxygen and nitrogen are also reduced in low-sulfur
Oils Used as Additives or Organic Fuel. (In Fr.) Ol., Corps Gras, Lipides petrodiesel.30,37,38
1999, 6, 435-438.
(8) Van Gerpen, J. H.; Soylu, S.; Tat, M. E. Evaluation of the
Lubricity of Soybean Oil-Based Additives in Diesel Fuel. In Proceedings (22) Kajdas, C.; Majzner, M. Boundary Lubrication of Low-Sulphur
of the 1999 ASAE/CSAE-SCGR Annual International Meeting, 1999, Diesel Fuel in the Presence of Fatty Acids. Lubr. Sci. 2001, 14, 83-
Paper No. 996134. 108.
(9) Drown, D. C.; Harper, K.; Frame, E. Screening Vegetable Oil (23) Kajdas, C.; Majzner, M. The Influence of Fatty Acids and Fatty
Alcohol Esters as Fuel Lubricity Enhancers. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. Acids Mixtures on the Lubricity of Low-Sulfur Diesel Fuels. SAE Tech.
2001, 78, 579-584. Pap. Ser. 2001, 2001-01-1929.
(10) Lang, X.; Dalai, A. K.; Reaney, M. J.; Hertz, P. B. Preparation (24) Anastopoulos, G.; Lois, E.; Zannikos, F.; Kalligeros, S.; Teas,
and Evaluation of Vegetable Oil Derived Biodiesel Esters as Lubricity C. The Tribological Behavior of Alkyl Ethers and Alcohols in Low
Additives. TriboTest 2001, 8, 131-150. Sulfur Automotive Diesel. Fuel 2002, 81, 1017-1024.
(11) Prescher, K.; Wichmann, V. Auswirkungen des Zusatzes von ¸
(25) Kajdas, C.; Kardasz, K.; Kedzierska, E. Effectiveness of Selected
Rapsolmethylester (RME) auf die Schmierfahigkeit von Schwefelarm-
¨ ¨ Polyhydric Alcohol Esters of Mono- and Dicarboxylic Acids as Lubricity
em Dieselkraftstoff nach DIN EN 590 (neu). Report, University of Additives. (In Pol.) Tribologia 2002, 33, 879-886.
Rostock, Germany, FKZ: 99NR048, 2001. (26) Kenesey, E.; Ecker, A. Oxygen Compounds for Improvement
(12) Schumacher, L. G.; Adams, B. T. Using Biodiesel as a Lubricity of the Lubricity in Fuels. (In Ger.) Tribol. Schmierungstech. 2003, 50,
Additive for Petroleum Diesel Fuel. ASAE Paper No. 02-6085, July 21-26.
2002. (27) Minami, I.; Hong, H.-S.; Mathur, N. C. Lubrication Performance
(13) Goodrum, J. W.; Geller, D. P. Influence of Fatty Acid Methyl of Model Organic Compounds in High Oleic Sunflower Oil. J. Synth.
Esters from Hydroxylated Vegetable Oils on Diesel Fuel Lubricity. Lubr. 1999, 16, 3-12.
Bioresour. Technol. 2005, 96, 851-855. (28) Fox, N. J.; Tyrer, B.; Stachowiak, G. W. Boundary Lubrication
(14) Anastopoulos, G.; Lois, E.; Zannikos, F.; Kalligeros, S.; Teas, Performance of Free Fatty Acids in Sunflower Oil. Tribol. Lett. 2004,
C. HFRR Lubricity Response of an Additized Aviation Kerosene for 16, 275-281.
Use in CI Engines. Tribol. Int. 2002, 35, 599-604. (29) Wain, K. S.; Perez, J. M. Oxidation of Biodiesel Fuel for
(15) Karonis, D.; Anostopoulos, G.; Lois, E.; Stournas, S.; Zannikos, Improved Lubricity. ICE 2002, 38, 27-34.
F.; Serdari, A. Assessment of the Lubricity of Greek Road Diesel and (30) Wei, D.; Spikes, H. A. The Lubricity of Diesel Fuels. Wear 1986,
the Effect of the Addition of Specific Types of Biodiesel. SAE Tech. 111, 217-235.
Pap. Ser. 1999, 1999-01-1471. (31) Lacey, P. I.; Lestz, S. J. Effect of Low-Lubricity Fuels on Diesel
(16) Anastopoulos, G.; Lois, E.; Serdari, A.; Zanikos, F.; Stornas, S.; Injection PumpssPart I: Field Performance. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1992,
Kalligeros, S. Lubrication Properties of Low-Sulfur Diesel Fuels in the 920823.
Presence of Specific Types of Fatty Acid Derivatives. Energy Fuels (32) Lacey, P. I.; Lestz, S. J. Effect of Low-Lubricity Fuels on Diesel
2001, 15, 106-112. Injection PumpssPart II: Laboratory Evaluation. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser.
(17) Anastopoulos, G.; Lois, E.; Karonis, D.; Kalligeros, S.; Zannikos, 1992, 920824.
F. Impact of Oxygen and Nitrogen Compounds on the Lubrication (33) Nikanjam, M.; Henderson, P. T. Lubricity of Low Sulfur Diesel
Properties of Low Sulfur Diesel Fuels. Energy 2005, 30, 415-426. Fuels. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1993, 932740.
(18) Lacey, P. I.; Gunsel, S.; De La Cruz, J.; Whalen, M. V. Effects (34) Wang, J. C.; Reynolds, D. J. The Lubricity Requirement of Low
of High Temperature and Pressure on Fuel Lubricated Wear. SAE Sulfur Diesel Fuels. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1994, 942015.
Tech. Pap. Ser. 2001, 2001-01-3523. (35) Tucker, R. F.; Stradling, R. J.; Wolveridge, P. E.; Rivers, K. J.;
(19) Hughes, J. M.; Mushrush, G. W.; Hardy, D. R. Lubricity- Ubbens, A. The Lubricity of Deeply Hydrogenated Diesel FuelssThe
Enhancing Properties of SoyOil When Used as a Blending Stock for Swedish Experience. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1994, 942016.
Middle Distillate Fuels. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2002, 41, 1386-1388. (36) Wall, S. W.; Grill, R. A.; Byfleet, W. D. The No-Harm Perfor-
(20) Geller, D. P.; Goodrum, J. W. Effects of Specific Fatty Acid mance of Lubricity Additives for Low-Sulfur Diesel Fuels. Pet. Coal
Methyl Esters on Diesel Fuel Lubricity. Fuel 2004, 83, 2351-2356. 1999, 41, 38-42.
(21) Anastopoulos, G.; Lois, E.; Karonis, D.; Zanikos, F.; Kalligeros, (37) Dimitrakis, W. J. The Importance of Lubricity. Hydrocarbon
S. A Preliminary Evaluation of Esters of Monocarboxylic Fatty Acid Eng. 2003, 8, 37-39.
on the Lubrication Properties of Diesel Fuel. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. (38) Barbour, R. H.; Rickeard, D. J.; Elliott, N. G. Understanding
2001, 40, 452-456. Diesel Lubricity. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 2000, 2000-01-1918.
3. 1194 Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 Knothe and Steidley
Methods that have been approved as standards for biodiesel and petrodiesel components influencing lubric-
testing diesel fuel lubricity include the scuffing load ball- ity with the objective of defining the components and
on-cylinder lubricity evaluator (SL-BOCLE) (ASTM structural features that impart the best lubricity prop-
D-6078) and the high-frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR) erties to a diesel fuel. Such data seem to be essential,
(ASTM D-6079, ISO 12156) lubricity tester. The HFRR because it can eventually aid in formulating “designer”
method was selected in a round-robin evaluation of fuels in which the fatty acid profile of biodiesel fuel is
several lubricity-testing methods for an ISO standard.39 tailored toward optimizing various essential fuel prop-
It has been included in the European petrodiesel erties. Such properties include not only the lubricity but
standard EN 590,40 which utilizes the ISO 12156 also the cetane number as an indicator of ignition (and
method and, effective in 2005, the American petrodiesel combustion) quality, cold flow, viscosity, and oxidative
standard ASTM D-975.41 The prescribed maximum stability.
wear scars are 460 µm in the EN 590 standard and 520 Also, for purposes of this work, the term “blend” will
µm in the ASTM D-975 standard. Biodiesel standards be used for concentrations of g1% of a material in the
currently do not contain lubricity specifications. main fuel and the term “additive” will be used for
There has been further comparative discussion in the concentrations of <1%.
literature on the HFRR and SL-BOCLE methods,42-45
with some reports favoring SL-BOCLE, whereas tests Experimental Section
using BOCLE indicated problems with additive evalu-
ations.46 On the other hand, the majority of data in the All of the straight-chain esters (methyl, ethyl, n-propyl,
n-butyl) were purchased from NuChek-Prep, Inc. (Elysian,
previously cited literature was acquired with the HFRR
MN) and had a purity of >99%, as confirmed by random checks
method and the HFRR data seem to discriminate (using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and/
between types of fuels and additives, although deviating or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)) of some
reports exist.47,48 The HFRR method is more user- materials. Straight-chain and branched alkanes, as well as
friendly and is also suitable for pressurization to study aromatic (including dibenzothiophene and dibenzofuran) and
the lubricity of volatiles or fuels that are gases under alkylated aromatic compounds, all of which had purities of
ambient conditions.49 The HFRR method has also been g98% (in most cases, g99%; verified by GC-MS analyses)
stated to be more severe than pump tests.50 Wear scars were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. (Milwaukee, WI)
of 460 µm (at 60 °C) were reported to indicate fuels with and used as received. Petrodiesel fuels were obtained from
sufficient lubricity for practical use in a diesel engine, Midwest Oil Co. (Peoria, IL) (No. 1 diesel fuel) and Chevron
Phillips (ultralow-sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuels, with and without
whereas fuels generating wear scars above this limit
lubricity additive).
may or may not be acceptable.11 Other fuel lubricity Lubricity determinations were performed at 25 and 60 °C
testing methods such as the ball-on-three-disks (BOTD) (controlled to less than (1 °C), according to the standard
method were also discussed.48,51 method ASTM D-6079,52 with an HFRR lubricity tester
In this work, lubricity data for neat individual com- obtained from PCS Instruments (London, England) via Lazar
pounds that comprise biodiesel and some hydrocarbons Scientific (Granger, IN). Controlling the humidity to 30%-
that comprise petrodiesel, as well as blending and 50% is necessary for the HFRR test to give reproducible
additive effects of fatty compounds in petrodiesel, were results,46 which was accomplished here, according to the
assembled using the HFRR lubricity test. The present standard52 with a potassium carbonate bath (50% humidity).
work discusses and correlates structural features of Other standards, such as ISO 12156, use the same experi-
mental parameters as ASTM D-6079; however, they only allow
(39) Nikanjam, M.; Crosby, T.; Henderson, P.; Gray, C.; Meyer, K.;
for a test temperature of 60 °C. The principle and function of
Davenport, N. ISO Diesel Fuel Lubricity Round Robin Program. SAE the HFRR apparatus, which is designed to evaluate boundary
Tech. Pap. Ser. 1995, 952372. lubrication properties and, therefore, show only little impact
(40) CEN Diesel Fuel Specification, European Petrodiesel Standard of sample viscosity on the results,38 have been described in
EN 590, Beuth-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1993.
(41) Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oils, ASTM D-975, ASTM
the literature11,26,29,53 and therefore will not be discussed here.
Annual Book of Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials, In addition to the usual wear scar data of the HFRR ball, we
West Conshohocken, PA. report the friction data (which involves the coefficient of
(42) Blizard, N. C.; Bennett, P. A. The Lubricity Requirement of Low friction50) and film data (which involves the electrical resis-
Sulfur Diesel Fuels. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1996, 961946.
(43) Nikanjam, M. Diesel Fuel Lubricity: On the Path to Specifica-
tance50) recorded by the software during the experiments.
tions. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1999, 1999-01-1479. Although most literature reports contain only the average wear
(44) Lacey, P. I.; Mason, R. L. Fuel Lubricity: Statistical Analysis scar value of the HFRR ball (in micrometers) calculated from
of Literature Data. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 2000, 2000-01-1917. the maximum values of the x- and y-axis of the wear scar and
(45) Mitchell, K. Diesel Fuel LubricitysBase Fuel Effects. SAE Tech.
Pap. Ser. 2001, 2001-01-1928.
as is prescribed in standards, we report all x- and y-values,
(46) Nikanjam, M.; Burk, E. Diesel Fuel Lubricity Additive Study. which reflect the approximate shape of the wear scar, as well
SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1994, 942014. as the averages. The average wear scar data at 60 °C are
(47) Mitchell, K. The Lubricity of Winter Diesel Fuels. SAE Tech. italicized in all tables, for ease of recognition.
Pap. Ser. 1995, 952370.
(48) Gray, C.; Wilcox, A.; Scott, M.; Webster, G.; St.-Pierre, P.;
With a few exceptions, lubricity tests were usually conducted
Maidens, M.; Mitchell, K.; Sporleder, D. Investigation of Diesel Fuel only in duplicate, because of the large number of samples
Lubricity and Evaluation of Bench Tests to Correlate with Medium investigated and the cost and time associated with testing such
and Heavy Duty Diesel Fuel Injection Component Wear - Part 1. SAE a large number of samples. In addition to the high- and low-
Tech. Pap. Ser. 2002, 2002-01-1700.
(49) Lacey, P. I.; Naegeli, D. W.; De La Cruz, J. L.; Whalen, M. V.
lubricity standards provided by the vendor for calibration,
Lubricity of Volatile Fuels for Compression Ignition Engines. SAE
Tech. Pap. Ser. 2000, 2000-01-1804. (52) Standard Test Method for Evaluating Lubricity of Diesel Fuels
(50) Crockett, R. M.; Derendinger, M. P.; Hug, P. L.; Roos, S. Wear by the High-Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR), ASTM D-6079-99,
and Electrical Resistance on Diesel Lubricated Surfaces Undergoing 1999 ASTM Annual Book of Standards, American Society for Testing
Reciprocating Sliding. Tribol. Lett. 2004, 16, 187-194. and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
(51) Voitik, R. M.; Ren, N. Diesel Fuel Lubricity by Standard Four (53) Hadley, J. W.; Owen, G. C.; Mills, B. Evaluation of a High-
Ball Apparatus Utilizing Ball on Three Disks, BOTD. SAE Tech. Pap. Frequency Reciprocating Wear Test for Measuring Diesel Fuel Lubric-
Ser. 1995, 950247. ity. SAE Tech. Pap. Ser. 1993, 932692.
4. Lubricity of Biodiesel and Petrodiesel Components Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 1195
Table 2. High-Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) Data of Biodiesel and Petrodiesel Reference Materials
Wear Scar (µm)
25 °C 60 °C Film (%) Friction
material X Y average X Y average 25 °C 60 °C 25 °C 60 °C
low lube standard 661, 689 647, 655 654, 672 645, 659 625, 626 635, 643 16, 11 18, 22 0.528, 0.489 0.631, 0.754
high lube standard 335, 323 305, 300 320, 312 396, 428 397, 421 397, 425 57, 60 46, 36 0.209, 0.210 0.201, 0.220
DF1 436, 456 389, 390 413, 423 587, 635 527, 558 557, 597 30, 25 24, 15 0.260, 0.262 0.250, 0.262
ULSD 634, 629 592, 604 613, 617 666, 649 635, 623 651, 636 17, 21 12, 11 0.371, 0.360 0.383, 0.413
ULSD with additive 353, 365 253, 297 303, 331 352, 334 285, 265 319, 300 57, 53 72, 77 0.232, 0.244 0.216, 0.204
biodiesel 194, 208 111, 115 153, 162 158, 147 99, 120 129, 134 85, 92 95, 96 0.112, 0.115 0.123, 0.111
Table 3. HFRR Data of Components of Conventional Petroleum-Derived Diesel Fuel and Related Hydrocarbons
Wear Scar (µm)
25 °C 60 °C Film (%) Friction
material X Y average X Y average 25 °C 60 °C 25 °C 60 °C
hexadecane 459, 403 365, 365 412, 384 597, 589 546, 552 572, 571 37, 47 15, 15 0.255, 0.234 0.301, 0.309
1-dodecene 757, 733 735, 720 746, 727 669, 666 662, 644 666, 655 23, 25 48, 53 0.477, 0.430 0.466, 0.472
1-tetradecene 402, 408 345, 316 374, 362 524, 476 422, 421 473, 449 62, 66 56, 56 0.154, 0.148 0.150, 0.147
1-hexadecene 424, 339 309, 265 367, 302 513, 512 436, 441 475, 477 72, 81 41, 45 0.186, 0.166 0.187, 0.190
1-octadecene 539, 555 472, 493 506, 524 586, 576 560, 547 573, 562 24, 23 22, 22 0.293, 0.289 0.310, 0.305
HMNa 608, 615 611, 620 610, 618 671, 634 665, 649 668, 642 26, 27 10, 24 0.361, 0.377 0.539, 0.415
trans-Decalin 666, 650 647, 626 657, 638 652, 646 646, 625 649, 636 31, 23 21, 19 0.445, 0.423 0.502, 0.502
butylcyclohexane 678, 660 664, 667 671, 664 732, 693 685, 696 709, 695 27, 24 31, 31 0.443, 0.426 0.810, 0.508
a HMN ) 2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonane.
methyl oleate was also used, for calibration purposes. The wear temperature. Generally, the friction values reported in
scar (WS1.4) values for the high- and low-lubricity standards the tables are reduced for samples of improved lubricity,
accompanying the HFRR apparatus were within the ranges although, at best, only a semiquantitative relationship
of 403 ( 34 µm and 633 ( 55 µm, as specified by the producer may be possible. Friction values are usually slightly
of these standards (Haltermann, Hamburg, Germany; see
higher at 60 °C than at 25 °C.
Table 2).
The petrodiesel fuels used here (DF1 and low-lubricity
ULSD) exhibit poor lubricity in neat form (see Table 2).
Results and Discussion The neat hydrocarbons listed in Table 3 also possess
Lubricity was assessed using the ASTM D-6079 high wear scar values. The unsaturated compounds
method at 25 and 60 °C. A variety of compounds were 1-tetradecene and 1-hexadecene show the lowest wear
studied neat (including fatty esters, fatty alcohols, fatty scar values of the compounds listed in Table 2, with the
acids, and hydrocarbons), as well as in blends or as values for 1-dodecene and 1-octadecene being higher.
additives with petrodiesel fuels. Table 2 gives the wear Thus, for such hydrocarbons, this implies an effect of
scar values of the reference fuels (ULSD, DF1, biodie- chain length and unsaturation on lubricity, which was
sel). The effect of the lubricity additive in ULSD is also discussed in prior literature.4 This effect is present
clearly visible. Commercial biodiesel possessed, by far, and probably even more pronounced for fatty com-
the best lubricity of the reference fuels. The reasons for pounds, as discussed below. The commercial biodiesel
this behavior of biodiesel are discussed below. Table 3 sample used for comparison in Table 2, on the other
lists the results for some neat hydrocarbons that hand, shows excellent lubricity, as demonstrated by the
partially comprise petrodiesel fuels. Table 4 presents low wear scar values.
such values for neat fatty compounds that can be found The data in Table 4 lead to the following observations
in biodiesel fuels. Table 5 reports the HFRR data of regarding the effects on lubricity of neat fatty com-
compounds with 10 C atoms (C10). Table 6 contains the pounds. Lubricity increases somewhat with chain length;
HFRR data of compounds with 3 C atoms (C3) and however, the lubricity-enhancing effect of double bonds
varying OH, NH2, and SH groups. The HFRR data for is greater than that of extended chain length. However,
additized petrodiesel fuels are presented in Table 7 other authors stated that increasing unsaturation had
(ULSD fuel without lubricity additive) and Table 8 (low- a negative influence on fatty acids as wear reducers in
lubricity No. 1 diesel fuel). vegetable oils.28,54 It was also reported that shorter
As the data in Tables 2-8 show, there is some chain lengths reduce molecular interaction with de-
temperature dependence of the results, with wear scars, creased temperature stability of the protective lubricant
in most cases, being larger at 60 °C than at 25 °C. film.55 The double-bond configuration does not have a
Maximum acceptable results for HFRR given in the significant role for the compounds studied here (methyl
literature are 380 µm at 25 °C and 460 µm at 60 °C,44 linoleate (∆9, ∆12; all-cis) versus methyl linolelaidate
with the latter parameter corresponding to the specifi- (∆9, ∆12; all-trans); see Table 4). The triacylglycerol of
cation in the European standard EN 590, as mentioned oleic acid (triolein) shows better lubricity than the
previously. Generally, the range of wear scars for all corresponding methyl ester (methyl oleate). This con-
samples tested here is greater at 60 °C than at 25 °C, trasts with literature results in which methyl soyate
thus allowing improved discernment of additization and (54) Vizintin, J.; Arnsek, A.; Ploj, T. Lubricating Properties of
ˇ ˇ
influence of molecular structure on lubricity. Also, Rapeseed Oils Compared to Mineral Oils Under a High-Load Oscil-
lating Movement. J. Synth. Lubr. 2000, 17, 201-218.
petrodiesel standards prescribe a test temperature of (55) Jahanmir, S. Chain Length Effect in Boundary Lubrication.
60 °C and most published data were acquired at this Wear 1985, 102, 331-349.
5. 1196 Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 Knothe and Steidley
Table 4. HFRR Data of Neat Fatty Compounds
Wear Scar (µm)
25 °C 60 °C Film (%) Friction
compound X Y average X Y average 25 °C 60 °C 25 °C 60 °C
methyl laurate 245, 249 208, 218 227, 234 467, 433 365, 383 416, 408 73, 74 56, 69 0.133, 0.133 0.157, 0.143
butyl laurate 254, 265 206, 220 230, 243 342, 372 301, 306 322, 339 85, 81 72, 64 0.128, 0.129 0.133, 0.133
methyl myristate 255, 245 211, 207 233, 226 368, 375 337, 329 353, 352 76, 78 77, 76 0.124, 0.123 0.130, 0.130
methyl myristoleate 292, 356 263, 240 278, 298 245, 278 200, 238 223, 258 80, 88 91, 90 0.125, 0.120 0.124, 0.119
methyl palmitate nda nda nda 375, 385 339, 339 357, 362 nda 76, 77 nda 0.125, 0.130
methyl palmitoleate 201, 196 142, 160 172, 178 266, 247 226, 208 246, 228 88, 89 86, 92 0.121, 0.119 0.112, 0.112
methyl stearate nda nda nda 387, 302 257, 252 322, 277 nda 88, 87 nda 0.114, 0.103
oleic acid 145, 151 91, 90 118, 121 0, 0 0, 0 0, 0 91, 91 98, 91 0.065, 0.069 0.086, 0.089
methyl oleate 219, 216 210, 205 215, 211 298, 357 281, 327 290, 342 89, 90 86, 72 0.118, 0.118 0.133, 0.139
butyl oleate 224, 232 185, 183 205, 208 311, 354 295, 335 303, 345 92, 90 84, 61 0.108, 0.108 0.119, 0.130
monoolein nda nda nda 146, 131 131, 114 139, 123 nda 98, 98 nda 0.051, 0.055
diolein nda nda nda 201, 179 170, 146 186, 163 nd a 94, 95 nda 0.080, 0.064
triolein 147, 155 77, 75 112, 115 180, 173 106, 134 143, 154 99, 99 99, 97 0.041, 0.041 0.181, 0.211
linoleic acid 151, 152 97, 100 124, 126 0, 0 0, 0 0, 0 89, 87 100, 100 0.087, 0.084 0.057, 0.067
methyl linoleate 198, 213 146, 180 172, 197 260, 238 211, 199 236, 219 90, 86 94, 95 0.131, 0.132 0.12, 0.116
methyl linolenate 231, 250 194, 183 213, 217 201, 220 165, 149 183, 185 76, 75 94, 94 0.133, 0.135 0.108, 0.115
methyl 9,12-linolelaidate 220, 220 182, 180 201, 200 200, 198 150, 156 175, 177 89, 91 93, 94 0.093, 0.094 0.102, 0.112
methyl ricinoleate 184, 184 128, 120 156, 152 216, 193 165, 155 191, 174 93, 95 91, 92 0.077, 0.077 0.101, 0.096
oleyl alcohol 184, 214 175, 158 180, 186 332, 314 269, 263 301, 289 85, 87 47, 51 0.095, 0.087 0.123, 0.121
ricinoleyl alcohol 92, 100 90, 72 91, 86 180, 176 115, 147 148, 162 100, 100 95, 94 0.048, 0.049 0.064, 0.058
a Not determined because the melting points were >25 °C (30 °C for methyl palmitate, 39 °C for methyl stearate, and 35 °C for monoolein).
The melting points of palmitic and stearic acids are 51 and 71 °C, respectively.
Table 5. HFRR Data of C10 Oxygenated Compounds and Diethylene Glycol Diethyl Ether
Wear Scar (µm)
25 °C 60 °C Film (%) Friction
material X Y average X Y average 25 °C 60 °C 25 °C 60 °C
methyl nonanoate 256, 237 180, 189 218, 213 370, 361 342, 318 356, 340 31, 32 64, 70 0.126, 0.131 0.138, 0.137
decanoic acid nda nda nda 92, 110 71, 72 82, 91 nda 98, 98 nda 0.103, 0.104
1-decanol 231, 262 195, 193 213, 228 324, 311 287, 265 306, 288 62, 72 59, 58 0.110, 0.110 0.126, 0.126
decanal 225, 250 217, 221 221, 236 277, 246 217, 215 247, 231 90, 87 84, 86 0.129, 0.129 0.134, 0.135
2-decanone 256, 321 273, 311 265, 316 402, 359 378, 366 390, 363 40, 46 41, 43 0.141, 0.146 0.159, 0.157
dipentyl ether 373, 411 376, 368 375, 390 488, 486 423, 445 456, 466 23, 27 34, 37 0.185, 0.180 0.169, 0.167
diethylene glycol diethyl ether 687, 695 681, 693 684, 694 739, 718 714, 709 727, 714 29, 32 35, 42 0.399, 0.402 0.506, 0.496
a Not determined, because of the properties of decanoic acid (fr. 31.5 °C).
imparted somewhat better lubricity to a petrodiesel fuel To further assess the influence of oxygenated moieties
than the parent vegetable oil.8 Neat free fatty acids on lubricity, a series of neat compounds with 10 C atoms
possess significantly better lubricity (no wear scars with different oxygenated functionalities was selected
visible at 60 °C for oleic and linoleic acids) than the for further study (see Table 5), similar to previous work
corresponding fatty alcohols, the various acylglycerols, on the viscosity of fatty compounds.58 Decanoic acid
and glycerol (see Table 6). Generally, the carboxylic acid exhibited the best lubricity of the these compounds.
moiety is likely the most effective in enhancing lubricity. However, the carbonyl compounds decanal and 2-de-
Apparently, sterically unhindered (i.e., exposed) elec- canone also showed good lubricity, performing better
trons in the form of free electron pairs or double-bond than decanol. The compound with the poorest lubricity
electrons toward the end of a chain of C atoms are in this series was dipentyl ether. The HFRR data (Table
especially effective in enhancing lubricity, which is an 5) of a compound with three ether linkagessdiethylene
effect discussed previously for components of petrodie-
glycol diethyl ether (C2H5-O-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-
sel.38 It may be speculated that the corresponding
CH2-O-C2H5)sconfirm that ether moieties do not
orbitals overlap with orbitals in the metal atoms, similar
provide significant lubricity-enhancing effects. Thus, the
to the formation of organometallic complexes (for ex-
ample, π-complexes of alkenes), although the exact lubricity of neat esters is almost exclusively provided
nature of this overlap would likely differ from the by the CdO moiety of the ester functionality, which is
organometallic complexes. Studies of the tribochemical an observation that is also consistent with the lubricity
nature using fatty acids and esters, as well as related provided by the aldehyde and ketone in this series. This
materials, have discussed the formation of organome- result is confirmed by other authors, who stated that
tallic species, such as metal carboxylates and organo- the most active compounds, in terms of lubricity en-
metallic polymers, although still little is known about hancement, have more than one heteroatom with the
the reactions that are occurring and this tribochemistry
is subject to much speculation.50,56,57 (57) Hsu, S. M.; Zhang, J.; Yin, Z. The Nature and Origin of
Tribochemistry. Tribol. Lett. 2002, 13, 131-139.
(58) Knothe, G.; Steidley, K. R. Kinematic Viscosity of Biodiesel Fuel
(56) Murase, A.; Ohmori, T. ToF-SIMS Analysis of Model Com- Components and Related Compounds. Influence of Compound Struc-
pounds of Friction Modifier Adorbed onto Friction Surfaces of Ferrous ture and Comparison to Petrodiesel Fuel Components. Fuel 2005, 84
Materials. Surf. Interface Anal. 2001, 31, 191-199. (9), 1059-1065.
6. Lubricity of Biodiesel and Petrodiesel Components Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 1197
Table 6. Effect of OH, SH, and NH2 Groups on the Lubricity of C3 Compounds by HFRR
material, Wear Scar (µm)
C(R1)H2-C(R2)H-C(R3)H2 25 °C 60 °C Film (%) Friction
R1 R2 R3 X Y average X Y average 25 °C 60 °C 25 °C 60 °C
OH OH OH 0, 0 0, 0 0, 0 100, 91 75, 75 88, 83 100, 100 99, 100 0.047, 0.055 0.027, 0.025
OH OH H 172, 171 115, 138 144, 155 269, 336 255, 258 262, 297 87, 88 46, 67 0.100, 0.098 0.126, 0.131
OH H OH 237, 225 186, 173 212, 199 333, 371 242, 260 288, 316 57, 48 7, 12 0.075, 0.104 0.105, 0.111
OH H H 607, 581 540, 523 574, 552 nda nda nda 8, 11 nda 0.368, 0.350 nda
H OH H 623, 638 614, 612 619, 625 nda nda nda 22, 34 nda 0.361, 0.367 nda
OH OH SH 0, 92 0, 78 0, 85 374, 340 261, 216 318, 278 93, 93 0, 0 0.038, 0.037 0.136, 0.129
OH SH SH 544, 481 414, 337 479, 409 570, 531 419, 392 495, 462 0, 0 0, 0 0.124, 0.124 0.193, 0.190
SH H SH 481, 528 391, 416 436, 472 ndb ndb ndb 0, 0 ndb 0.224, 0.233 ndb
SH H H 548, 541 561, 552 555, 547a nda nda nda 46, 45 nda 0.203, 0.187 nda
OH OH NH2 0, 0 0, 0 0, 0 64, 0 59, 0 62, 0 100, 100 97, 98 0.109, 0.117 0.041, 0.037
NH2 OH NH2 ndc 361, 350 302, 308 332, 329 ndc 47, 47 ndc 0.114, 0.119
a Not determined, because of the volatility of 1-propanol (bp 97 °C), 2-propanol (82 °C), 1,3-propanedithiol (bp 173 °C), and 1-propanethiol
(bp 68 °C) at 60 °C. 1-Propanethiol largely evaporated, even during the 25 °C experiment, negatively influencing the wear scar data.b No
60 °C data for 1,3-propanedithiol, because of malodorous fumes resulting from higher volatility at this temperature. c Not determined,
because of the melting point of 1,3-diamino-2-propanol (42-45 °C).
heteroatoms in exposed configuration,38 which is a result be due to one end of the molecule being of hydrocarbon
that is confirmed by the lubricity displayed by the C10 nature. Both 1- and 2-propanol exhibited high wear scar
aldehyde. values (data collected only at 25 °C, because of their
In conjunction with the above discussion, the data in volatility). The presence of an SH group did not signifi-
Tables 4 and 5 result in the following sequence of cantly affect lubricity, compared to the presence of only
oxygenated moieties enhancing lubricity by HFRR at hydrogen. On the other hand, the amino compounds
60 °C: COOH > CHO > OH > COOCH3 > CdO > investigated here performed better than the thiols, with
C-O-C. At 25 °C, the values are closer together. 1-aminoglycerol even giving lower wear scars than
Although the general sequence remains unchanged at glycerol. This observation is compatible with reports in
25 °C, there is little difference between the aldehyde, the literature that oxygen- and nitrogen-containing
hydroxy, and methyl ester group at 25 °C. In this polar compounds are the species imparting lubricity to
connection, it was reported that the correlation between nondesulfurized diesel fuel and not the sulfur com-
wear scar diameter and actual pump performance is pounds.30,38 However, a study on sulfurized fatty acids
better for results obtained at 60 °C.51 Most compounds in rapeseed oil stated that, at high loads, sulfurized
caused greater wear scars at 60 °C than at 25 °C, with octadecanoic acid performed better than octadecanoic
the exception of the free fatty acids, oleic acid, and acid.60 Another study using C18 compounds in sunflower
linoleic acid (see Table 4), the reason for which is not oil reported a lubricity-improving effect in the order of
known. The lubricity enhancement caused by COOH carboxylic acid > amine > amide, with thiol exhibiting
and OH groups correlates with the known observation a negative effect.27 The sequence of lubricity enhance-
that ionic interactions of a metal substrate with a ment by HFRR using C3 compounds is clearly oxygen
lubricating molecule due to hydrogen bonding and > nitrogen . sulfur.
Debye orientation forces are considerably stronger than Additization. In accordance with the prior literature,
those based on dipole (van der Waals) forces.59 Phys- which has been discussed above, adding 1%-2% com-
isorption and/or chemisorption was thought to be the mercial biodiesel to the two low-lubricity petrodiesel
primary mechanism with rapeseed oil.54 The lubricity fuels used here improved their lubricity (see Tables 2,
of alkyl esters is lower than that of the hydrogen-bond- 7, and 8). However, the addition of neat methyl oleate
forming contaminants, because they do not give ionic or methyl linoleate at a level of 1%-2% had only a
interactions with the metal, because of their lack of free marginal effect on the lubricity of the two low-lubricity
OH groups. petrodiesel fuels (see Tables 7 and 8). This result
The number of lubricity-enhancing moieties in a corresponds with work that reported a similar effect20
molecule also has a role. Neat ricinoleyl alcohol displays but contrasts with other literature that describes an
better lubricity than oleyl alcohol (see Table 4). Glycerol, improvement of lubricity with low-level neat fatty
which contains only three carbons but three OH groups, esters.17,21 On the other hand, adding free fatty acids
possesses even stronger lubricity (see Table 6). Com- to the low-lubricity petrodiesel fuels improved lubricity
pounds with three carbons were selected to also assess considerably (see Tables 7 and 8), a result agreeing with
the influence of N and S atoms (in the form of NH2 and previous reports.22,23,26
SH groups) on lubricity (see Table 6). The data in Table These results prompted us to prepare samples in
6 show that lubricity decreases as the number of OH which, initially, 1% free fatty acid was added to the
groups decreases. Thus, the neat propanediols per- corresponding methyl ester and then this mixture was
formed well. However, the position of the hydroxy added at the 1% level to the low-lubricity petrodiesel
groups may have a role, as 1,2-propanediol shows fuels. Thus, the concentration of free fatty acid in the
slightly better lubricity than 1,3-propanediol. This may petrodiesel fuels is 0.01% (100 ppm) in these mixtures.
The results in Tables 7 and 8 show a significant increase
(59) Liang, H.; Totten, G. E.; Webster, G. M. Lubrication and
Tribology Fundamentals. In Fuels and Lubricants Handbook; Totten, (60) Cao, Y.; Yu, L.; Liu, W. Study of the Tribological Behavior of
G. E., Westbrook, S. R., Shah, R. J., Eds.; ASTM International: West Sulfurized Fatty Acids as Additives in Rapeseed Oil. Wear 2000, 244,
Conshohocken, PA, 2003; pp 909-961. 126-131.
7. 1198 Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 Knothe and Steidley
Table 7. Effect of Blending or Additization on HFRR Data of Ultralow Sulfur Petrodiesel Fuela
Wear Scar (µm)
25 °C 60 °C Film (%) Friction
blend/additive X Y average X Y average 25 °C 60 °C 25 °C 60 °C
1% biodiesel 223, 207 178, 179 201, 193 318, 318 266, 265 292, 292 92, 94 88, 90 0.169, 0.173 0.178, 0.171
2% biodiesel 191, 202 183, 185 187, 194 308, 297 254, 219 281, 258 95, 94 92, 93 0.158, 0.160 0.181, 0.182
1% methyl oleate 299, 238 240, 219 270, 229 618, 529 576, 501 597, 515 78, 84 36, 55 0.194, 0.179 0.264, 0.233
2% methyl oleate 245, 246 157, 155 201, 201 390, 375 377, 360 384, 368 89, 89 76, 74 0.170, 0.169 0.198, 0.204
5% methyl oleate 242, 249 222, 211 232, 230 386, 366 343, 351 365, 359 83, 88 71, 78 0.155, 0.156 0.179, 0.174
10% methyl oleate 225, 232 168, 173 197, 203 306, 310 272, 286 289, 298 90, 88 86, 88 0.154, 0.151 0.154, 0.157
0.01% oleic acid 235, 238 185, 211 210, 225 259, 254 208, 211 234, 233 90, 86 87, 86 0.119, 0.120 0.130, 0.128
1% oleic acid 233, 206 168, 172 201, 189 182, 193 174, 183 178, 188 91, 93 93, 93 0.116, 0.119 0.114, 0.114
2% oleic acid 212, 229 183, 188 198, 209 203, 198 165, 175 184, 187 88, 90 94, 93 0.121, 0.120 0.118, 0.113
1% monoolein 230, 216 137, 161 184, 189 146, 179 121, 142 134, 161 86, 86 99, 98 0.122, 0.122 0.120, 0.124
1% diolein 207, 225 159, 180 183, 203 280, 274 193, 228 237, 251 90, 90 92, 91 0.131, 0.132 0.141, 0.143
1% triolein 209, 220 160, 184 185, 202 393, 369 377, 370 385, 370 87, 90 70, 68 0.156, 0.153 0.197, 0.192
2% triolein 204, 193 143, 159 174, 176 299, 345 275, 282 287, 314 90, 92 85, 77 0.147, 0.143 0.163, 0.175
1% glycerol ndc ndc ndc 646, 663 635, 635 641, 649 ndc 9, 8 ndc 0.378, 0.412
1% methyl oleate with 242, 239 220, 214 231, 226 483, 455 405, 427 444, 441 85, 88 56, 62 0.186, 0.181 0.209, 0.214
1% glycerolb
2% methyl oleate with 216, 246 171, 148 193, 197 398, 415 357, 375 378, 395 92, 89 69, 73 0.171, 0.162 0.211, 0.177
1% glycerolb
1% methyl oleate with 232, 214 177, 182 205, 198 381, 363 331, 325 356, 344 89, 90 77, 81 0.154, 0.155 0.180, 0.171
1% oleic acidb
2% methyl oleate with 207, 200 184, 120 196, 160 290, 274 256, 198 273, 236 91, 90 89, 93 0.145, 0.146 0.139, 0.212
1% oleic acidb
1% methyl oleate with 218, 230 170, 179 194, 205 345, 320 325, 286 335, 303 86, 84 80, 85 0.151, 0.151 0.174, 0.170
1% monoleinb
1% methyl oleate with 256, 254 152, 185 204, 220 547, 502 518, 467 533, 485 85, 85 48, 57 0.167, 0.175 0.225, 0.212
1% dioleinb
1% methyl oleate with 238, 232 177, 188 208, 210 371, 263 311, 231 341, 247 90, 90 82, 93 0.154, 0.153 0.167, 0.213
1% glycerol & 1% oleic acidb
2% methyl oleate with 209, 230 165, 199 187, 215 362, 280 318, 258 340, 269 90, 88 79, 86 0.141, 0.140 0.152, 0.139
1% glycerol & 1% oleic acidb
1% oleic acid with 233, 237 187, 180 210, 208 203, 211 178, 169 190, 190 89, 90 93, 93 0.121, 0.119 0.116, 0.118
1% glycerolb
2% oleic acid with 218, 242 174, 195 196, 218 218, 227 169, 161 193, 194 89, 85 93, 94 0.120, 0.119 0.118, 0.118
1% glycerolb
1% methyl linoleate 292, 308 240, 258 266, 283 592, 588 554, 557 573, 573 83, 79 31, 24 0.193, 0.205 0.265, 0.275
2% methyl linoleate 226, 228 155, 185 191, 207 557, 572 514, 530 536, 551 93, 91 43, 35 0.176, 0.178 0.238, 0.247
1% methyl linoleate with 223, 242 152, 199 188, 221 491, 451 382, 374 437, 413 90, 89 57, 55 0.167, 0.163 0.191, 0.193
1% linoleic acidb
1% methyl linoleate with ndc ndc ndc 587, 609 554, 550 571, 580 ndc 27, 23 ndc 0.260, 0.267
1% glycerolb
1% methyl linoleate with ndc ndc ndc 330, 304 271, 244 301, 274 ndc 87, 93 ndc 0.188, 0.183
1% monolinoleinb
1% methyl linoleate with ndc ndc ndc 543, 556 511, 509 527, 533 ndc 44, 50 ndc 0.239, 0.231
1% dilinoleinb
1% triolein with 220, 242 169, 208 195, 225 389, 414 347, 352 368, 383 88, 89 69, 65 0.151, 0.148 0.172, 0.185
1% oleic acidb
1% triolein with 199, 263 178, 185 189, 224 346, 290 291, 242 319, 266 77, 84 77, 86 0.131, 0.137 0.155, 0.145
2% oleic acidb
a For data of the neat petrodiesel fuels, see Table 1. b Samples described in this fashion contain 1%-2% of the second- and third-
named material in the first-named material. This mixture was then added to the petrodiesel fuel. Thus, the second- and third-named
materials are present at 0.01%-0.02% (100-200 ppm) levels in the petrodiesel fuel. c Not determined.
in lubricity when adding these ester/free fatty acid standards (see Table 1) but does clearly illustrate the
mixtures to the petrodiesel fuels, compared to adding effect. Only 1% of such a mixture imparts sufficient
only the neat ester. This result also corresponds well lubricity, which must be compared to the common 2%
with the aforementioned sequence of lubricity-imparting level of biodiesel usually applied. Thus, B2 (2% com-
oxygenated moieties. mercial biodiesel in petrodiesel) produced from biodiesel
Similar results were achieved when adding methyl that contained 0.2% free fatty acid contains 0.004% (40
esters that contained 1% of the corresponding monoa- ppm) free fatty acid. The biodiesel may also contain 0.4%
cylglycerols and then adding this mixture to petrodiesel monoacylglycerols, leading to 0.008% (80 ppm) thereof
(see Tables 7 and 8). Diacylglycerols were less effective in B2; thus, the concentration of lubricity-enhancing
than monoacylglycerols, which can be explained by the biodiesel contaminants present in B2 then is >0.01%
reduced number of OH moieties, as shown previously (100 ppm), which is a level comparable to that studied
for C3 compounds and the results for oleyl alcohol versus here.
ricinoleyl alcohol. Both monoacylglycerols and diacyl- On the other hand, adding glycerol (see Tables 7 and
glycerols were proposed by other authors to be the 8) at similar levels had no beneficial effect on lubricity.
actual lubricity-imparting agents in biodiesel.7 This is likely due to the immiscibility of glycerol with
The 1% level of free fatty acid or monoacylglycerol in petrodiesel. In conjunction with the lubricity-enhancing
the methyl ester is above the specification stated in the effect of monoacylglycerols, which produce, in neat form,
8. Lubricity of Biodiesel and Petrodiesel Components Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 1199
Table 8. Effect of Blending or Additization on HFRR Data of Low-Lubricity No. 1 Petrodiesel Fuela
Wear Scar (µm)
25 °C 60 °C Film (%) Friction
blend/additive X Y average X Y average 25 °C 60 °C 25 °C 60 °C
1% biodiesel 227, 258 202, 185 215, 222 323, 400 276, 339 300, 370 74, 70 85, 70 0.192, 0.191 0.179, 0.185
2% biodiesel 229, 239 160, 181 195, 210 273, 320 229, 271 251, 296 80, 80 93, 89 0.178, 0.183 0.160, 0.171
1% methyl oleate 300, 287 345, 254 323, 271 601, 570 537, 502 569, 536 69, 68 24, 28 0.209, 0.209 0.223, 0.223
2% methyl oleate 272, 286 184, 249 228, 268 571, 552 515, 500 543, 526 71, 70 33, 36 0.194, 0.198 0.208, 0.209
5% methyl oleate 268, 261 239, 228 254, 245 373, 367 348, 338 361, 353 77, 74 77, 75 0.182, 0.173 0.183, 0.185
10% methyl oleate 275, 270 275, 240 275, 255 363, 334 334, 336 349, 353 70, 83 77, 75 0.156, 0.165 0.172, 0.176
0.01% oleic acid 245, 226 199, 200 222, 213 250, 260 207, 223 229, 242 86, 78 87, 84 0.121, 0.127 0.131, 0.132
1% monoolein 234, 245 130, 143 182, 194 213, 199 136, 145 175, 172 90, 89 96, 97 0.127, 0.129 0.128, 0.129
1% diolein 225, 255 155, 225 190, 240 349, 306 276, 248 313, 277 85, 83 85, 87 0.157, 0.158 0.165, 0.168
1% glycerol 379, 418 351, 357 365, 388 658, 624 590, 555 624, 590 49, 48 9, 15 0.250, 0.256 0.283, 0.267
1% methyl oleate with 242, 247 224, 193 233, 220 276, 314 230, 198 253, 256 79, 78 92, 86 0.182, 0.181 0.171, 0.179
1% monooleinb
1% methyl oleate with 269, 281 233, 271 251, 276 618, 557 543, 514 581, 536 79, 78 26, 30 0.212, 0.207 0.233, 0.222
1% dioleinb
1% methyl linoleate 317, 284 270, 250 294, 267 600, 602 558, 546 579, 574 68, 75 26, 27 0.222, 0.219 0.241, 0.239
2% methyl linoleate 226, 243 202, 224 214, 234 560, 559 500, 498 530, 529 90, 88 36, 39 0.202, 0.210 0.226, 0.227
1% methyl linoleate with 229, 221 197, 149 213, 185 370, 423 336, 371 353, 397 89, 89 73, 68 0.189, 0.192 0.175, 0.179
1% linoleic acidb
1% methyl linoleate with 225, 255 222, 240 224, 248 531, 556 473, 483 502, 520 86, 86 42, 40 0.217, 0.220 0.226, 0.234
1% glycerolb
1% methyl linoleate with 219, 250 185, 200 202, 225 287, 233 322, 227 260, 275 91, 88 91, 88 0.211, 0.212 0.196, 0.190
1% monolinoleinb
1% methyl linoleate with 253, 264 241, 238 247, 251 553, 611 501, 550 527, 581 77, 81 38, 30 0.214, 0.215 0.230, 0.239
1% dilinoleinb
1% triolein 248, 239 213, 211 231, 225 550, 554 502, 501 526, 528 81, 78 33, 33 0.198, 0.190 0.220, 0.220
2% triolein 297, 240 219, 167 258, 204 300, 333 268, 293 284, 313 77, 80 88, 84 0.176, 0.176 0.179, 0.188
1% triolein with 1% oleic acidb 241, 248 184, 199 213, 224 407, 359 328, 332 368, 346 85, 84 70, 79 0.165, 0.163 0.180, 0.174
1% triolein with 2% oleic acidb 239, 236 194, 195 217, 216 333, 312 308, 261 321, 287 84, 83 76, 78 0.143, 0.141 0.158, 0.159
1% 1-hexadecene 333, 337 306, 303 320, 320 620, 646 563, 568 592, 607 55, 61 17, 18 0.228, 0.231 0.242, 0.238
2% 1-hexadecene 408, 324 332, 277 370, 301 662, 641 569, 541 616, 591 45, 69 14, 17 0.236, 0.230 0.252, 0.234
1% dibenzothiophene 300, 322 251, 269 276, 296 630, 590 551, 514 591, 552 74, 69 14, 22 0.221, 0.233 0.263, 0.229
2% dibenzothiophene 419, 305 321, 261 370, 283 634, 611 565, 549 600, 580 46, 73 13, 25 0.214, 0.229 0.249, 0.224
1% dibenzofuran 371, 385 297, 309 334, 347 605, 584 544, 535 575, 560 59, 55 22, 21 0.218, 0.219 0.241, 0.237
2% dibenzofuran 278, 259 249, 232 264, 246 610, 626 570, 535 590, 581 73, 74 20, 21 0.224, 0.214 0.236, 0.232
a For data of the neat petrodiesel fuels, see Table 1. b Samples described in this fashion contain 1%-2% of the second-named material
in the first-named material. This mixture was then added to the petrodiesel fuel. Thus, the second-named material is present at 0.01%-
0.02% (100-200 ppm) levels in the petrodiesel fuel.
greater wear scars than glycerol, at additive level, this blend or additization levels. The present results not only
result underlines that both hydrophilic and lipophilic show that such levels of biodiesel are needed to achieve
moieties, as they are found in fatty compounds with additive levels of the free fatty acid and monoacylglyc-
polar end groups, are necessary to enhance lubricity. erol contaminants of biodiesel in the petrodiesel, but
Generally, the lubricity-imparting behavior of mix- also that the “leap” likely indicates that a sufficient
tures that consist of one or two types of biodiesel concentration of the contaminants has been achieved
contaminants added to a neat methyl ester corresponded to impart lubricity.
to the material that imparted the best lubricity (see The compounds with hydrogen-bonding ability are
Tables 7 and 8). Thus, the lubricity of materials such considered contaminants of biodiesel and are, accord-
as free fatty acids and monoacylglycerols is not impeded ingly, limited in biodiesel standards. These results
by the other components in the mixtures that comprise explain why 1%-2% biodiesel, which is higher than the
biodiesel. usual additive level, has been required to impart lubric-
Therefore, free fatty acids and monoacylglycerols ity when adding biodiesel to low-sulfur petrodiesel fuel.
contained in commercial biodiesel, which are considered The biodiesel must be added at a level sufficiently high
contaminants and are limited in biodiesel standards, are for its hydrogen-bonding contaminants to attain the
the materials that impart lubricity to the 1%-2% blends additive level in the low-sulfur petrodiesel fuel and
of biodiesel with low-lubricity petrodiesel. This result become effective lubricity-enhancing additives.
also explains the observation by other authors that the The addition of a sulfur-containing compound in
addition of methyl soyate to petrodiesel improved undesulfurized petrodiesel,61 as well as its oxygen
lubricity but the addition of the parent vegetable oil had congener dibenzofuran, to low-sulfur petrodiesel had
less effect.8 The free fatty acids and monoacylglycerols little or no lubricity-enhancing effect (see Table 8).
in biodiesel (which arise during its production) caused Related results have been reported.33 Dibenzothiophene
the enhanced lubricity, compared to the vegetable oil, was also shown not to enhance viscosity when added to
although the addition of neat triacylglycerols improves an aromatic hydrocarbon, in contrast to fatty esters.58
lubricity more than adding neat esters, as discussed
previously. Other authors11 have reported a “leap” in
(61) Song, C. Introduction to Chemistry of Diesel Fuels. In Chemistry
lubricity when adding rapeseed methyl ester at levels of Diesel Fuels; Song, C., Hsu, C. S., Mochida, I., Eds.; Taylor and
of 0.75%-1.00% to petrodiesel fuel, compared to lower Francis: New York, 2000; pp 25-28.
9. 1200 Energy & Fuels, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2005 Knothe and Steidley
Summary and Conclusions with the ether linkage having a minor role. The func-
tional group that enhances lubricity the most is COOH.
The present results obtained with the high-frequency
The sequence of lubricity enhancement by oxygenated
reciprocating rig (HFRR) lubricity tester give clear data
moieties in fatty compounds is similar, but not identical,
concerning such factors as the influence of functional
to the sequence observed for the enhancement of
groups and additization on lubricity. The HFRR method
kinematic viscosity,58 showing differences between these
proved to be sensitive to additives and their structure
properties. The lubricity of low-level blends (1%-2%)
at the levels investigated here (down to 100 ppm).
of biodiesel with low-lubricity petrodiesel is largely
The present results show that at least two features
caused by free fatty acid and monoacylglycerol contami-
must be present in a molecule to impart lubricity. These
nants present in the biodiesel.
features are the presence of a polarity-imparting het-
eroatom, preferably oxygen, with the nature (and num-
ber) of the oxygen moiety having a significant role, and/ Acknowledgment. We thank Dr. Joseph Thompson
or a carbon chain of sufficient length, which also (University of Idaho) for providing the ultralow-sulfur
increases viscosity. If sufficient oxygenated moieties of diesel fuel.
lubricity-imparting capability are present, then even a
Note Added in Proof: A very recent publication [Hu
short-chain compound (for example, glycerol) will pos-
et al., Study on the Lubrication Properties of Biodiesel
sess excellent lubricity in the neat form, although a lack
as Fuel Lubricity Enhancers. Fuel, in press] reports that
of miscibility with hydrocarbons such as petrodiesel will
monoacylglycerols and methyl esters especially enhance
not impart lubricity when using this material as an
biodiesel lubricity, more so than free fatty acids and
additive. Lubricity is strongly dependent on the nature
diacylglycerols, whereas triacylglycerols had almost no
in which O atoms are bound in the molecule and, if they
effect. These results are in partial accordance with the
are present as lubricity-enhancing moieties, on the
results presented here.
number of these moieties. The lubricity of neat esters
is mainly caused by the presence of a carbonyl moiety, EF049684C