Global system for mobile communication(GSM)Jay Nagar
~Introduction
~GSM Architecture
~GSM Entities
~SMS Service In GSM
~Call Routing In GSM
~PLMN Interfaces
~GSM Addresses and Identifiers
~Network aspects in GSM
~Handover
~Mobility Management
~GSM Frequency Allocation
~Authentication and Security In GSM
GPRS Architecture and its components are covered extensively.
The slides give a little information about gprs and also gets into deeper explanation of its architecture.
Universal mobile telecommunication System (UMTS) is actually the third generation mobile, which uses WCDMA. The Dream was that 2G and 2.5G systems are incompatible around the world.
-Worldwide devices need to have multiple technologies inside of them, i.e. tri-band phones, dual-mode phones
To develop a single standard that would be accepted around the world.
-One device should be able to work anywhere.
Increased data rate.
- Maximum 2048Kbps
UMTS is developed by 3GPP (3 Generation Partnership Project) a joint venture of several organization
3G UMTS is a third-generation (3G): broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, multimedia at data rates up to 2 Mbps
Also referred to as wideband code division multiple access(WCDMA)
Allows many more applications to be introduce to a worldwide
Also provide new services like alternative billing methods or calling plans.
The higher bandwidth also enables video conferencing or IPTV.
Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities.
Global system for mobile communication(GSM)Jay Nagar
~Introduction
~GSM Architecture
~GSM Entities
~SMS Service In GSM
~Call Routing In GSM
~PLMN Interfaces
~GSM Addresses and Identifiers
~Network aspects in GSM
~Handover
~Mobility Management
~GSM Frequency Allocation
~Authentication and Security In GSM
GPRS Architecture and its components are covered extensively.
The slides give a little information about gprs and also gets into deeper explanation of its architecture.
Universal mobile telecommunication System (UMTS) is actually the third generation mobile, which uses WCDMA. The Dream was that 2G and 2.5G systems are incompatible around the world.
-Worldwide devices need to have multiple technologies inside of them, i.e. tri-band phones, dual-mode phones
To develop a single standard that would be accepted around the world.
-One device should be able to work anywhere.
Increased data rate.
- Maximum 2048Kbps
UMTS is developed by 3GPP (3 Generation Partnership Project) a joint venture of several organization
3G UMTS is a third-generation (3G): broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, multimedia at data rates up to 2 Mbps
Also referred to as wideband code division multiple access(WCDMA)
Allows many more applications to be introduce to a worldwide
Also provide new services like alternative billing methods or calling plans.
The higher bandwidth also enables video conferencing or IPTV.
Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities.
GSM-architecture-Location tracking and call setup- Mobility management- Handover-
Security-GSM SMS –International roaming for GSM- call recording functions-subscriber and
service data mgt –-Mobile Number portability -VoIP service for Mobile Networks – GPRS –
Architecture-GPRS procedures-attach and detach procedures-PDP context procedure-
combined RA/LA update procedures-Billing
LTE Basic Parameters, Data Rates, Duplexing & Accessing, Modulation, Coding & MIMO, Explanation of different nodes and Advantage & Disadvantages of different nodes.
Mobile Originated Call Process in Simple WordsAssim Mubder
Call Setup
Different procedures are necessary depending on the initiating and terminating party:
Mobile Originating Call MOC: Call setup, which are initiated by an MS
Mobile Terminating Call MTC: Call setup, where an MS is the called party
Mobile Mobile Call MMC: Call: setup between two mobile subscribers; MMC thus consists of the execution of a MOC and a MTC one after the other.
Mobile Internal Call MIC: a special case of MMC; both MSs are in the same MSC area, possibly even in the same cell.
Overview of Mobile IP , Features of Mobile IP , Key Mechanism in Mobile IP , route Optimization , Overview of TCP/IP , Architecture of TCP/IP , Adaptation of TCP Window , Improvement in TCP Performance,mobile computing.
GSM-architecture-Location tracking and call setup- Mobility management- Handover-
Security-GSM SMS –International roaming for GSM- call recording functions-subscriber and
service data mgt –-Mobile Number portability -VoIP service for Mobile Networks – GPRS –
Architecture-GPRS procedures-attach and detach procedures-PDP context procedure-
combined RA/LA update procedures-Billing
LTE Basic Parameters, Data Rates, Duplexing & Accessing, Modulation, Coding & MIMO, Explanation of different nodes and Advantage & Disadvantages of different nodes.
Mobile Originated Call Process in Simple WordsAssim Mubder
Call Setup
Different procedures are necessary depending on the initiating and terminating party:
Mobile Originating Call MOC: Call setup, which are initiated by an MS
Mobile Terminating Call MTC: Call setup, where an MS is the called party
Mobile Mobile Call MMC: Call: setup between two mobile subscribers; MMC thus consists of the execution of a MOC and a MTC one after the other.
Mobile Internal Call MIC: a special case of MMC; both MSs are in the same MSC area, possibly even in the same cell.
Overview of Mobile IP , Features of Mobile IP , Key Mechanism in Mobile IP , route Optimization , Overview of TCP/IP , Architecture of TCP/IP , Adaptation of TCP Window , Improvement in TCP Performance,mobile computing.
In this ppt you'll learn about the packet delivery. How the Ip packet is delivered from transmitter to receiver when the Mobile node is in the Foreign network. Also you'll be able to learn all definitions like What is mobile node, correspondent node, Home agent, Foreign Agent, Tunneling, Encapsulation, COA(care of address) etc. After that you'll learn about the Agent advertisement and registering of care of address including different steps.
MOBILE IP_INTRODUCTION_OVERVIEW OF MOBILE IP_KEY MECHANISMS OF MOBILE IP_SCHEMATIC MODEL OF MOBILE IP_TUNNELLING_CARE OF ADDRESS-TCP_PACKET FORWARDING_TCP SLIDING WINDOWS
IT2255 Web Essentials - Unit II Web Designingpkaviya
HTML - Form Elements - Input types and Media elements - HTML 5 - CSS3 - Selectors, Box Model, Backgrounds and Borders, Text Effects, Animations, Multiple Column Layout, User Interface.
IT2255 Web Essentials - Unit I Website Basicspkaviya
Internet Overview – Fundamental computer network concepts – Web Protocols – URL – Domain Name – Web Browsers and Web Servers – Working principle of a Website – Creating a Website – Client-side and server-side scripting.
BT2252 - ETBT - UNIT 3 - Enzyme Immobilization.pdfpkaviya
Enzymes are catalysts that perform all vital biological reactions within an organism’s body. Their distinguishing characteristic is that they endure the reaction unchanged.
Therefore, they can be utilised repeatedly. However, soluble enzymes are limited by their separation from the product and substrate.
The majority of Enzymes in a living organism are either connected to the cell membrane or encapsulated within the cells.
This result led to the hypothesis that pure separated enzymes may work better when immobilised on a solid substrate.
The phrase immobilised enzyme refers to “catalytically active enzymes that are physically limited or localised in a specific region of space and can be used again and continuously.”
The benefit of immobilisation is that it promotes work-up product isolation. Listed below are some potential advantages and disadvantages of immobility.
Soluble Enzyme + Substrate———– Product (single time usage of enzyme)
Immobilized Enzyme + Substrate———Product (Repeated usage of enzyme)
A number of essential considerations must be made when immobilising an enzyme.
The enzyme’s biological activity should be maintained.
The enzyme ought to be more stable than its soluble equivalent.
The price of immobilisation shouldn’t be excessively high.
The relationship between humans and enzymes has evolved over time. Even during historical times, where there was no concept of enzymes, ancient Egypt people produced beer and wine by enzymatic fermentation. After several thousand years, enzymatic studies have significantly progressed. Enzymes are proteins that accelerate many biochemical and chemical reactions. They are natural catalysts and are ubiquitous, in plants, animals, and microorganisms, where they catalyze processes that are vital to living organisms. The growing knowledge and technique improvement about protein extraction and purification lead to the production of many enzymes at an analytical grade purity for research and biotechnological applications. Enzymes are intimately involved in a wide variety of traditional food processes, such as cheese making, beer brewing, and wine industry. Recent advances in biotechnology, particularly in protein engineering, have provided the basis for the efficient development of enzymes with improved properties. This has led to establishment of novel, tailor-made enzymes for completely new applications, where enzymes were not previously used. The technology of immobilized enzymes is still going through a phase of evolution and maturation. Evolution is reflected in the ever-broadening range of applications of immobilized enzymes. Maturation is mirrored in the development of the theory of how immobilized enzymes function and how the technique of immobilization is related to their primary structure through the formation and configuration of their three dimensional structure. There still remains much room for the development of useful processes and materials based on this hard-won understanding.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Gen AI Study Jams _ For the GDSC Leads in India.pdf
IT6601 Mobile Computing Unit II
1. IT6601 – MOBILE COMPUTING
UNIT – II
MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL &
TRANSPORT LAYER
KAVIYA P
Assistant Professor
Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology
3. Mobile IP - Definition
• Mobile Internet Protocol (Mobile IP) was proposed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF).
• The mobile IP allows mobile computers to stay connected to the
Internet regardless of their location and without changing their IP
address.
• Mobile IP is a standard protocol that extends the Internet Protocol by
making mobility transparent to applications and to higher level
protocols like TCP.
• Every mobile user likes to have a continuous network connectivity
irrespective of its physical location.
5. Mobile IP
• A correspondent node (CN) is connected via a router to the internet,
and the home network and the foreign network are also connected
via a router, i.e. the home agent (HA) and foreign agent (FA),
respectively, to the Internet.
• Home agent (HA) is implemented on the router connecting the home
network with the Internet, a foreign agent (FA) is also implemented
on the router connecting the foreign network with the Internet.
• The tunnel for the packets towards mobile node starts at the home
agent and ends at the foreign agent, again here the foreign agent has
the care-of-address (COA).
6. Terminologies – Mobile IP
• Mobile Node (MN): Hand-held equipment with roaming capabilities. Eg: cell phone, PDA,
laptop, etc.
• Home Network: The home network of a mobile device is the network within which the
device receives its identifying IP address (Home address).
• Home Address (HA): The home address of a mobile device is the IP address assigned to
the device within the home network.
• Foreign Agent (FA): A router in a foreign network that functions as the point of
attachment for a mobile node when it roams to the foreign network, delivering packets
from the Home Agent to the Mobile Node.
• Foreign Network (FN): The current subnet to which the mobile node is visiting. It is
different form home network. A foreign network is the network in which a mobile node is
operating when away from its home network.
• Correspondent Node (CN): Home Agent is a router on the home network serving as the
anchor point for communication with the Mobile Node; it tunnels packets from a device
on the Internet, called a Correspondent Node, to the roaming Mobile Node.
7. • Care-of-Address (COA): It is the address that is used to identify the present
location of a foreign agent.
• The packets sent to the MN are delivered to COA.
• The COA can be any of the following two types:
• Foreign agent COA: The COA is an IP address of foreign agent (FA).
• CO-located COA: When the mobile node (MN) acquires a temporary IP address, that
address acts as the COA. (acquired using services like DHCP)
• Home Agent (HA): It is located in home network and it provides several services
for the MN. HA maintains a location registry. The location registry keeps track of
the node locations using the current care-of-address of the MN.
• Agent Discovery: During call establishment it is necessary for a mobile node to
determine its foreign agent. This task is referred to as agent discovery.
• Agent advertisement
• Agent Solicitation
8. Tunnelling and Encapsulation
• Tunnelling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel
entry and an endpoint.
• Tunnelling is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a
mechanism called encapsulation.
• Encapsulation refers to arranging a packet header and data in the data part of the
new packet.
• On the other hand, disassembling the data part of an encapsulated packet is
called decapsulation.
• Whenever a packet is sent from a higher protocol layer to a lower protocol layer,
the operations of encapsulation and decapsulation usually take place.
11. Packet Delivery
Corresponding node (CN) wants to send an IP packet to a Mobile node (MN)
1. CN sends the packet to the IP address of the mobile node.
• The IP address of the MN is the destination address, whereas the address of CN is the source
address.
• The packet is passed to the Internet that does not have any information about the MN’s
current location.
• So the internet routes the packet to the router of the MN’s home network.
• The home agent (HA) examines the packet to determine whether the MN is present in its
current home network or not.
• In case that MN is not present, then the packet is encapsulated by a new header that is
placed in front of the existing IP header.
12. Packet Delivery
Corresponding node (CN) wants to send an IP packet to a Mobile node (MN)
2. The encapsulated packet is tunneled to the COA, which act as the new
destination address and the HA acts as the source address of the packet.
3. The encapsulated packet is routed to the foreign agent which performs
decapsulation to remove the additional header and forwards the decapsulated
packets to the MN, which is the actual destination, as specified by the source
node (CN).
4. The MN after receiving the packet from CN, forwards a reply packet to the CN
by specifying its own IP address along with the address of the CN.
• The MN’s IP address acts as the source address and the CN’s IP address acts as the
destination address.
• The packet is routed to the FA. After receiving the packet, FA forwards the packet to CN.
13. Overview of Mobile IP
• The steps used in the operation of mobile IP are the following:
Step 1:
The remote client sends a datagram to the MN using its home address.
It reaches the home agent (say Delhi) as usual.
Step 2:
The home agent encapsulates that datagram in a new packet and sends
it to the foreign agent (say Singapore)
15. Desirable Features of Mobile IP
• Transparency: A mobile end-system should continue to keep its IP address and
there should not be any disruption of communication after any movement. The IP
address is to be managed transparently and there should not any effect of
mobility on any on-going communication.
• Compatibility: Mobile IP should be compatible with the existing Internet
protocols.
• Security: Mobile IP should provide users with secure communications over the
Internet.
• Efficiency and Scalability: In the event of world wide support, there can be a large
number of mobile systems in the whole Internet. This should neither result in
large number of messages nor should it incur too much computational overhead.
It should also be scalable to support billions of moving hosts world wide.
17. Key Mechanism Used in Mobile IP
Mobile IP is associated with the following three basic mechanisms:
• Discovering the care-of-address
• Registering the care-of-address
• Tunnelling to the care-of-address
The registration process works over UDP. The discovery protocol over ICMP.
18. Discovering the care-of-address
• Each mobile node uses a discovery protocol to identify the respective
home and foreign agents.
• The discovery of the care-of-address consists of the following
important steps:
• Mobile agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting the agent
advertisement messages.
• The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement message observes
whether the message is from its own home agent and determines whether it
is on the home network or on a foreign network.
• If a mobile node does not wish to wait for the periodic advertisement, it can
send out agent solicitation messages that will be responded to the mobility
agent.
19. Discovering the care-of-address
The process of agent advertisement, involves the following activities:
• Foreign agents send messages to advertise the available care-of-
addresses
• Home agents send advertisements to make themselves known.
• Mobile hosts can issue agent solicitation to actively seek information.
• If a mobile host has not heard from the foreign agent to which its
current care-of-address belongs, it takes up another care-of-address.
20. Registering the care-of-address
• If a mobile node discovers that it is on the home network. It operates
normally without using any mobility services.
• While a node has moved to a different network, if the mobile node obtains
a care-of-address from a foreign agent, then this address should be
registered with the home agent.
• The mobile node sends a request for registration to its home agent along
with the care-of-address information.
• Whenever the home agent receives the registration request information,
the routing table is updated and it sends back the registration reply to the
mobile node.
• The mobile node makes use of the registration procedure to intimate the
care-of-address to a home agent.
23. Registering the care-of-address
• The registration process consists of the following steps:
1. If the mobile node travels to a foreign network, it registers with the foreign agent
by sending a registration request message which includes the permanent IP
address of the mobile host and the IP address of its home agent.
2. The foreign agent in turn performs the registration process on behalf of the mobile
host by sending a Registration Request containing the permanent IP address of the
mobile node and the IP address of the foreign agent to the home agent.
3. When the home agent receives the Registration Request, it updates the mobility
binding by associating the care-of-address of the mobile node with its home
address.
4. The home agent then sends an acknowledgement to the foreign agent.
5. The foreign agent in turn updates its visitors list by inserting the entry for the
mobile node and relays the reply to the mobile node.
24. Tunnelling to the care-of-address
• Tunnelling take place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to a
care-of-address.
• This involves carrying out the following steps:
• When a home agent receives a packet addressed to a mobile host, it forwards the
packet to the care-of-address using IP-within-IP(encapsulation).
• Using IP-within-IP, the home agent inserts a new IP header in front of the IP header
of any datagram.
• Destination address is set to the care-of-address.
• Source address is set to the home agent’s address.
• After stripping out the first header, IP processes the packet again.
28. Route Optimization
• In the mobile IP protocol, all the data packets to the mobile node go
through the home agent.
• Because of this there will be heavy traffic between HA and CN in the
network, causing latency to increase.
• Therefore route optimization needs to be carried out to overcome this
problem.
• The association of the home address with a care-of-address is called
binding.
• Enable direct notification of the corresponding host.
• Direct tunneling from the corresponding host to the mobile host.
• Binding cache maintained at the corresponding host.
29. Route Optimization – Messages Transmitted in Optimized Mobile IP
Message Type Description
Binding request If a node wants to know the current location of a mobile node (MN),
it sends a request to the home agent (HA).
Binding acknowledgement On request, the node will return an acknowledgement message
after getting the binding update message.
Binding update This is a message sent by HA to CN mentioning the correct location
of MN. The message contains the fixed IP address of the mobile
node and the care-of-address. The binding update can request for
an acknowledgement.
Binding warning If a node decapsulates a paket for a mobile node (MN), but it is not
the current foreign agent (FA), then this node sends a binding
warning to the home agent (HA) of the mobile node (MN).
31. DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL (DHCP)
• DHCP was developed based on bootstrap protocol (BOOTP).
• DHCP provides several types of information to a user including its IP
address.
• To manage dynamic configuration information and dynamic IP
addresses, IETF standardized an extension to BOOTP known as
dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP).
• The DHCP client and server work together to handle the roaming
status and to assign IP address on a new network efficiently.
• The DHCP server allocates an IP address from a pool of IP addresses
to a client.
32. DHCP consists of two components
• A protocol for delivering host specific configuration parameters from
a DHCP server to a host
• A Mechanism for allocation of network addresses to hosts.
Application
• Simplification of installation and maintenance of networked
computers
• Supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address,
DNS server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.
• Enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the
Internet, can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP
33. Client/Server-Model
• The client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server
(might be via a DHCP relay)
• Server
• Several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet standardized
(i.e., manual configuration)
• Renewal of configurations
• IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol
• Disadvantage:
• No authentication of DHCP information specified
36. Significance of DHCP
• The importance of DHCP in a mobile computing environment is that it
provides temporary IP addresses whenever a host moves from one
network to another network.
• DHCP supports three important mechanisms for IP address allocation:
• Automatic allocation: In automatic allocation, DHCP assigns a permanent IP
address to a particular client.
• Dynamic allocation: In dynamic allocation, DHCP assigns IP address to a client
for a specific period of time.
• Manual allocation: In manual allocation, a client’s IP address is assigned by
the network administrator, where the DHCP is used to inform the address
assigned to clients.
38. Overview of TCP/IP
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed by DARPA in 1969.
• TCP/IP provides seamless communication services across an
internetwork consisting of a large number of different networks.
• TCP/IP protocol suite is a collection of a large number of protocols.
• Two important protocols of the protocol suite: TCP & UDP.
• TCP/IP protocol stack consists of four layers of protocols
• Application layer
• Transport layer
• Internet layer
• Network interface layer
40. Overview of TCP/IP
• The application programmers and end-users are mainly concerned with
application layer protocols.
• An application layer may use an application layer protocol to send a message to
another application.
• The specific transport layer protocol converts the message into small parts called
segments and passes these segments to the Internet layer protocol(IP).
• The IP layer protocol attaches certain information to the segments such as the
destination address to form packets.
• The IP layer passes on packets to the network interface layer protocol, which in
turn converts them into frames by adding certain additional information such as
checksum and then transmits them to the network.
41. Overview of TCP/IP
• The application layer deals with messages.
• The transport layer deals with segments.
• The internet layer deals with packets.
• The data link layer deals with frames.
42. Terminologies of TCP/IP
• TCP
• IP
• HTTP
• SMTP
• MIME
• FTP
• SNMP
• ICMP
• ARP
• RARP
• BOOTP
• Routers
• DNS
• IP Address
• IGMP
44. Architecture of TCP/IP
• The TCP/IP protocol consists of four layers.
• These layers are:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport layer
3. Internet layer
4. Network Access Layer
45. Architecture of TCP/IP
Application Layer
•Establish communication with other applications which may be running on separate hosts.
•Examples of application protocols are http, ftp and telnet.
Transport Layer
•It provides reliable end-to-end data transfer services.
•The term end-to-end means that the end points of a communication link are applications or
processes.
•Therefore, sometimes protocols at this layer are also referred to as host-to-host protocols.
•To identify the end point, it is not only the computer that needs to be identified, but also the exact
process or application that would receive the message needs to be identified.
•This is efficiently accomplished by using the concept of a port number.
•An application or a process specifies a port number on which it would receive a message.
•Once a message reaches a host, it is demultiplexed using the port number at the transport layer for
delivery to the appropriate application.
•This layer includes both connection-oriented (TCP) and connectionless (UDP) protocols.
46. Architecture of TCP/IP
Internet Layer
•Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams.
•IP datagram contains source and destination address (logical address or IP address) information
that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and across networks.
•The Internet layer is responsible for routing IP datagrams.
•In a nutshell, this layer manages addressing of packets and delivery of packets between networks
using IP address.
•Main protocols are IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP, and IGMP.
Network Access Layer
•The Network Access Layer of the TCP/IP model is associated with the Physical Layer (Layer 1) and
the Data Link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
•The functions of this protocol layer include encoding data and transmitting at the signaling by the
physical layer.
•The Network Access Layer's function is to move bits (0s and 1s) over the network medium such as
coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.
•It also provides error detection and packet framing functionalities by the data link layer.
•Data link layer protocols are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, and X.25.
49. Adaptation of TCP Window
• TCP deploys a flow control technique to control congestion in a network.
• Traffic congestion occurs when the rate at which data is injected by a host into the
network exceeds the rate at which data can be delivered to the network.
• Router buffer overflow
• Receiver buffer overflow
• A flow control technique by TCP helps adapt the rate at sending host end and to prevent
overrun at the slow receiver.
• The flow control mechanism by TCP (called the sliding window protocol) primarily based
on the concepts of congestion window and advertised window.
• When a sender starts to send data packets, the receiver indicates an advertised window
(or receiver window) to the sender while sending acknowledgement.
• The advertised window is usually set equal to the size of the receive buffer at the
receiver.
• The sender uses the advertised window size obtained from the receiver to determine the
maximum amount of data that it can transmit to the receiver without causing buffer
overflow at the receiver.
50. Adaptation of TCP Window
• A congestion window indicates the maximum number of segments that can be
outstanding without the receipt of the corresponding acknowledgement before
the TCP at the sender’s end pauses transmitting and waits for an acknowledge to
arrive.
• A sender sets the congestion window size to 1 and keeps on increasing it until
duplicate acknowledgements are received or until the number of outstanding
packets becomes equal to the size of the advertised window.
• TCP detects packet loss using Retransmission timeout (RTO) and duplicate
acknowledgements.
• In wired networks, packet loss occur on account of congestions encountered in
the transmission path. In a wireless environment packet losses can also occur due
to mobility and channel errors.
• In wired networks, bit errors are rare. Wireless networks are vulnerable to noise.
Noise can cause intermittent bit errors. Intermittent disconnections due to fading
and handoff.
52. Improvement in TCP performance
• TCP was designed for traditional wired networks.
• If used as it is, a few shortcomings become noticeable.
Traditional Networks
• Transport protocols typically designed for
• Fixed end-systems
• Fixed, wired networks
• TCP congestion control
• Packet loss in fixed networks typically due to (temporary) overload situations.
• Routers discard packets as soon as the buffers are full.
• TCP recognizes congestion only indirectly via missing acknowledgements.
• Retransmissions unwise, they would only contribute to the congestion and make it even
worse.
• Slow-start algorithm as reaction.
53. Traditional Networks
Slow Start
• Sender calculates a congestion window for a receiver.
• Start with a congestion window size equal to one segment.
• Exponential increase of the congestion window up to the congestion
threshold, then linear increase.
• Missing acknowledgement causes the reduction of the congestion
threshold to one half of the current congestion window.
• Congestion window starts again with one segment.
54. Traditional Networks
Congestion Avoidance
• It starts where slow start stops.
• Once congestion window reaches the congestion threshold level,
then after that if an acknowledgement is received the window size
is increased linearly (i.e) the window size doubling is avoided.
• The TCP increases its rate linearly by adding one additional picket to
its window at each transmission time. If congestion is detected at
any point the TCP is reduces its transmission rate to half the
previous value. Makes to right transmission rate.
• The is scheme is less aggressive than slow start phase.
55. Traditional Networks
Fast retransmit/Fast recovery
• The idea of fast retransmit is straightforward. Every time a data packet arrives at the
receiving side, the receiver responds with an acknowledgment, even if this sequence number
has already been acknowledged.
• Thus, when a packet arrives out of order— that is, TCP cannot yet acknowledge the data the
packet contains because earlier data has not yet arrived—TCP resends the same
acknowledgment it sent the last time.
• This second transmission of the same acknowledgment is called a duplicate ACK.
• When the sending side sees a duplicate ACK, it knows that the other side must have received
a packet out of order, which suggests that an earlier packet might have been lost.
• Since it is also possible that the earlier packet has only been delayed rather than lost, the
sender waits until it sees some number of duplicate ACKs and then retransmits the missing
packet. In practice, TCP waits until it has seen three duplicate ACKs before retransmitting the
packet.
• When the fast retransmit mechanism signals congestion, rather than drop the congestion
window all the way back to one packet and run slow start, it is possible to use the ACKs that
are still in the pipe to clock the sending of packets.
• This mechanism, which is called fast recovery, effectively removes the slow start phase that
happens between when fast retransmit detects a lost packet and additive increase begins.
57. Popular TCP Congestion Control Algorithms
• A few popular TCP congestion control algorithms are the following:
•TCP Tahoe
•TCP New Reno
•TCP SACK
•TCP Vegas
58. TCP Tahoe
• Most widely used TCP congestion control mechanism.
• implements the slow start, congestion avoidance, and fast retransmit algorithms.
• The slow-start and the congestion avoidance mechanisms target to maintain an optimal
size of the congestion window.
• Slow-start – Exponential increase of the congestion window size – achieving optimum
transfer rate.
• Congestion avoidance – Window size increases slowly (Linearly) in the congestion
avoidance phase to prevent packet losses.
• Note: Tahoe uses “Additive increase Multiplicative Decrease”. In this, it takes half of the
current congestion window size as a threshold value. It then sets the congestion window
to one and starts slow start until it reaches the threshold value. After that it increments
the congestion window size linearly until encounters a packet loss.
• Whenever, three duplicate acknowledgements for a packet are received, the Congestion
avoidance algorithm stops and the Fast retransmit algorithm is invoked.
59. Example congestion window change with slow start and congestion avoidance
window
10
5
15
20
0
Slow
start
Congestion
avoidance
Congestion occurs
Threshold
Fast recovery
would cause a
change here.
Round-trip times
60. TCP New Reno
• TCP New Reno sends partial acknowledgements that indicate to the TCP sender about the
sequence number of a segment that has been lost.
• This process helps in minimizing packet retransmission over the connection, resulting in improved
bandwidth utilization.
• TCP Reno retransmits all the data packets within the same segment and enters Slow-start phase
that leads to unnecessary data packets retransmission.
• During fast recovery of TCP New Reno, partial acknowledgement received by the sender informs it
about the exact packet that was lost, which it retransmits.
• In a single window or within the same congestion window, when multiple packets loss occur, TCP
New Reno invoked and lost packet is retransmitted without waiting for the retransmission timer
to expire.
• TCP New Reno works in fast retransmit/fast recovery mode until retransmission of all the lost data
packets is complete.
• Since TCP New Reno can effectively handle multiple packet losses, it is better suited for mobile
wireless applications.
• In TCP New Reno, the sender retransmits only one packet per Round Trip Time for a partial
acknowledgement received from the receiver end.
61. TCP SACK
• A selective acknowledgement (SACK) facility enables the receivers to indicate the out of order
(unsequenced) packets it receives.
• For this, SACK choice is used within an acknowledgement. This choice prevents retransmission of
entire window and only lost packets are resent quickly.
• The SACK option may not affect the existing congestion control algorithms. Also retains the
characteristics of TCP Tahoe and TCP New Reno in the case of out-of-order packets, and so on.
• The main difference between the TCP SACK and TCP New Reno is that when multiple packets are
lost from the window, TCP SACK retransmits only the lost packets.
• This technique does result in improved performance in sending/receiving of data packets over a
network.
• However it suffers – Whenever there is a packet loss, in order to determine the sequence
numbers of the lost packets that have been transmitted.
• On the sender side, the sender takes significant time to list the sequence number of all the
transmitted packets.
• But the calculations required for the listing procedure causes performance degradation of the
network.
62. TCP Vegas
• Improvement of TCP Reno.
• Calculates Round Trip Time (RTT) of each sent packet by using a fine grained clock.
• The retransmission timeout value is calculated each time there is a change of RTT.
• Whenever a duplicate acknowledgement is received it checks to see if the (current time-
segment transmission time)> RTT estimate.
• Then TCP Vegas immediately resends the segment without any delay and not waiting for three
duplicate acknowledgements.
• So no need to wait for 3 duplicate acknowledgment, to retransmit a packet.
• TCP Vegas results in improved throughput because the lost packets are identified quickly as
compared to other TCP versions and ensures the recovery of lost packets.
• However, if the evaluation of the Round Trip Time (RTT) values are wrong, then TCP Vegas
performs poorly.
64. TCP in Mobile Networks
• TCP is the de facto standard transport protocol.
• Wired networks are significantly different from wireless mobile networks.
• The main differences are much lower bandwidth, bandwidth fluctuations with
time, mobile host moves, higher delay, intermittent disconnection, high bit error
rate, and poor link reliability.
• Packet losses are due to network congestion, intermittent link failures, bit errors
due to noise, or handoff between two cells.
• Therefore, the traditional TCP assumptions are not valid in mobile (wireless)
environments. This leads to poor performance.
• Several modifications at the transport layer have been proposed studied to deal
with the problem.
65. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
I-TCP
• It is also called Indirect TCP
• Indirect TCP divides a TCP connection into fixed and wireless part
• Wired part: between Base Station (BS) and Fixed Host (FH) via standard internet
• Wireless part: between MH and BS via Wireless TCP
• The wireless link usually has poor quality communication, but it gets hidden from the fixed network at the BS
• When a packet is sent by FH to MH, the packet is received by BS and then BS transmit it to the MH over the wireless link
• If the mobile host moves out of the current BS region, the whole connection information and responsibilities that are
with the current BS are transferred to the new BS.
66. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
I-TCP
Advantages
• No changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol)
necessary, all current optimizations to TCP still work
• Transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into the fixed network
• simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between, e.g., a foreign agent
and mobile host
• therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the
mobile hop is known
Disadvantages
• loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a sender does not any longer
mean that a receiver really got a packet, foreign agents might crash
• higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding
to a new foreign agent
67. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
Fast Retransmission
• This approach is to overcome the delay in transmissions caused due to intermittent
disconnections when a mobile host (MH) moves to a foreign agent (FA).
• TCP transmission behavior after a disruption depends on its duration.
• The extremely short disruptions (lasting for a time much less than RTO) would appears
as short bursts of packet losses.
• In this case, the TCP retransmits those packets for which the timeout occurs and
recovers them without slow-start.
• For long disruption (lasting for a time much greater than RTO), TCP resorts to slow –
start. This results in inefficiency.
• As soon as a mobile host registers at a foreign agent, it starts sending duplicate
acknowledgements.
• As is standard with TCP, three consecutive acknowledgements for the same TCP
segment are inferred as a packet loss by the host-end TCP, and it is also inferred that the
connection is live, thereby causing the fast retransmit behavior of TCP.
68. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
Fast Retransmission
Advantages
• It reduces the time for the MH to get reconnected, otherwise FH would wait for RTO
unnecessarily.
Disadvantages
• It does not proposed a general approach for TCP communication in mobile wireless
networks.
69. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
Snooping TCP (S-TCP)
• This protocol improves TCP performance by modifying the software at the BS for
preserving the end-to-end TCP semantics.
• The modified software at the BS is known as snoop.
• It monitors every packets that passes through the TCP connection in both directions.
(ie) from MH to FH and vice versa.
• It buffers the TCP segments close to the MH.
• When congestion is detected during sending if packets form FH to MH in the form of a
duplicate acknowledgement or the timeout, it locally transmits the packets to MH if it
has buffered the packet and hides the duplicate acknowledgement.
70. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
Snooping TCP (S-TCP)
Advantages
• It maintains the TCP semantics by hiding the duplicate acknowledgements for the lost
TCP segment and resends the packets locally.
Disadvantages
• It suffers from higher overheads incurred when MH moves from it current BS to new
BS, the packet buffered at the current BS need not be transferred to the new BS.
71. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
Mobile TCP (M-TCP)
• The M-TCP protocol tries to avoid the sender window from shrinking or reverting to slow-start when bit
errors cause a packet-loss, as is attempted in I-TCP and snooping TCP.
• As in I-TCP, TCP connection is divided into fixed and wireless part.
• Wired part – Between Fixed Host (FH) and Supervisory Host (SH)
• Wireless part – Between SH and Mobile Host (MH)
• Many MHs are connected to SH through several base stations
• The SH supervises all the packets transmitted to MH and the acknowledgement sent by MH.
• When a packet is sent to FH by MH using SH, the wired part uses the normal unmodified TCP & wireless
part uses modified version of TCP known as M-TCP to deliver data to MH.
• This packet is acknowledged only when the MH receives the packet. Thus, it maintains the TCP semantics.
• In case the acknowledgement is not received by FH, SH decides that MH is disconnected and sets the
sender FH window size to zero. This prevents re-transmission.
• When SH notices that the MH is connected, it sets the full window size to the sender FH.
• When MH moves from its current SH region to a new SH region, a state transfer take places, so that the
new SH can maintain TCP connection between FH and MH.
73. TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks
Freeze-TCP
• The basic idea is to “freeze” the TCP senders’ streams, a little before a disconnection is to
occur.
• This is done by artificially sending a “Zero Window Advertisement” informing the sender that
the receiver cannot receive data at the moment.
• When the sender resumes its connectivity, the receiver can unfreeze the sender by sending the
value of its actual receive window.
• Advantages
• The avoidance of slow-start period upon re-establishment of connectivity.
• It does not require the involvement of the intermediate nodes and hence it can be used if
the IP payload is encrypted.
• Therefore, this method offers a promising approach for use in Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs).
74. TCP in Multi-hop Wireless Networks
TCP Feedback (TCP-F)
• The TCP-F protocol has been proposed for extending TCP to multiple-hop networks.
• In a mobile ad hoc network, a sender MH sends a packet to destination MH through the intermediate
MH, since all the nodes of the networks are MH.
• The MHs are free to move arbitrarily which changes the network topology unpredictably.
• The TCP-F addresses the problem caused by link failure due to mobility by performing a freezing action and
limiting the re-transmissions.
• Consider that a source MH is sending packets to a destination MH.
• As soon as an intermediate MH detects the disruption of route due to mobility of MH along the route, it
sends a route failure notification (RFN) packet to the source MH and records that event.
• If the intermediate node MH knows of an alternate route to destination MH, this alternative route can
now be used to support further communication and the RFN is discarded.
• Otherwise, the intermediate MH propagates the RFN towards the source MH.
• On receiving the RFN, the source MH completely stops sending further packets (new or retransmission)
then it marks all its existing timer as invalid and freezes the send windows.
• The source MH remains in this state until it is notified of the restoration of the route through route re-
establishment notification (RRN) packets.