Research design and research approach are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. Research design provides the overall plan for conducting a research study, including key elements like the research approach, variables, sampling, data collection methods, and analysis. The research approach, such as qualitative or quantitative, is an important component that governs the research design. An effective research design considers factors like the nature of the research problem, resources, participants, ethics, and controls extraneous variables. It allows the researcher to systematically answer research questions or test hypotheses.
Research Design (Research Types, Quantitative Research Design and Qualitative...Alam Nuzhathalam
An overview of Research Design: Definition, Classification of Research Design, Experimental Research Design, Non Experimental Research Design, Qualitative Research Design, Quantitative Research Design..
Research Design (Research Types, Quantitative Research Design and Qualitative...Alam Nuzhathalam
An overview of Research Design: Definition, Classification of Research Design, Experimental Research Design, Non Experimental Research Design, Qualitative Research Design, Quantitative Research Design..
Methods of data collection (research methodology)Muhammed Konari
Included all types of data collection.Includes primary data collection and secondary data collection. Described each and every classification of Data collections which are included in KTU Kerala.
This was a presentation that was carried out in our research method class by our group. It will be useful for PHD and master students quantitative and qualitative method. It consist sample definition, purpose of sampling, stages in the selection of a sample, types of sampling in quantitative researches, types of sampling in qualitative researches, and ethical Considerations in Data Collection.
Difference between qualitative and quantitative research shaniShani Jyothis
nursing research### quantitative research###qualitative research###difference#### process of research ......
Quantitative Vs qualitative research.......÷######$###@@@@@@@@@@ based on hypothesis, ............., variables analysis,............ interpretation, .............
Methods of data collection (research methodology)Muhammed Konari
Included all types of data collection.Includes primary data collection and secondary data collection. Described each and every classification of Data collections which are included in KTU Kerala.
This was a presentation that was carried out in our research method class by our group. It will be useful for PHD and master students quantitative and qualitative method. It consist sample definition, purpose of sampling, stages in the selection of a sample, types of sampling in quantitative researches, types of sampling in qualitative researches, and ethical Considerations in Data Collection.
Difference between qualitative and quantitative research shaniShani Jyothis
nursing research### quantitative research###qualitative research###difference#### process of research ......
Quantitative Vs qualitative research.......÷######$###@@@@@@@@@@ based on hypothesis, ............., variables analysis,............ interpretation, .............
Non- Probability Sampling & Its MethodsArpit Surana
A detailed explanation of non-probability sampling and its methods have been covered. There are 4 types of non- probability sampling methods:
1. convenience sampling
2. purposive sampling
3. quota sampling (both controlled and uncontrolled)
4. snowball sampling (all 3 ways of performing)
Meaning with adequate examples, pros and cons have been covered
For and query or further information, Kindly contact:
Arpit Surana
https://www.linkedin.com/in/arpitsurana116/
arpitsurana116116@gmail.com
lecture presented by Fe Angela M. Verzosa at PLAI-Southern Tagalog Region Librarians Council Seminar-workshop on the theme, “Research in Librarianship : Capacity Building to Strengthen Research Culture”, held 7 October 2015, El Grande Residencia Hotel and Resort, Brgy. San Carlos, Lipa City
The research approach indicates the basic procedure for conducting research.
Research approach is the technique which the researcher uses to structure a study in order to gather and analyze information relevant to the research question .
Acceptable Methods in Action Researc.docxannetnash8266
Acceptable Methods in Action
Research
Schools of Public Service Leadership and Nursing and Health Sciences
Version 1.1 Effective January 2015
Capella University
225 South Sixth Street, Ninth Floor
Minneapolis, MN 55402
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents .................................................................................................... 3
Action Research Acceptable Methods and Research Designs ................................... 4
Action Research is an Approach ................................................................................... 5
Qualitative Methods .................................................................................................... 5
Quantitative Methods .................................................................................................. 7
Mixed Methods ........................................................................................................... 8
References ................................................................................................................ 9
3
PSL/NHS ACCEPTABLE METHODS
ACTION RESEARCH ACCEPTABLE METHODS AND RESEARCH
DESIGNS
The overarching goal of Action Research (AR) is to collaborate with stakeholders and
participants in an effort to empower and effect social change. AR can be considered a
continuum ranging from appreciative inquiry to pure participatory research: appreciative
and cooperative inquiry (Heron, 1996; Reason & Rowan, 1981, Stowell & West, 1991,
Torbert, 1976, 2004), action research or action science (Argyris, 1970, 1980, 1994; Argyris,
Putnam, & Smith, 1985), participatory action research (Freire, 1970), and participatory
research (Lewin,1958). The common factor is that the participants or subjects are directly
involved in the research activities and the project solves a practice or problem that impacts
the participants (Springer, 2007).
Appreciative Action Participatory Participatory
Inquiry Research Action Research Research
Research Mutually Question Question generated Community generates and
Process generated
generated by the by the community. is in control of the process
question organization. Research process
Research controlled by
controlled and researcher
conducted by
researcher
Degree of Group Researcher asks High High
Participation process. for participation
Authentic
as needed
dialogue
Knowledge For practice Problem-solving Transform and Transformational
Generation improvement advance scientific
knowledge
Knowledge Advance Improve system. Community action. Social action.
Utilization practice. Self-
Advance
determination knowledge
Advance Development of critical
knowledge. consciousness.
Power Shared Held by Shared
Egalitarian
researcher
Outcomes Improvement
Solution
to Empowerment. Empowerment
of shared organizational Generation of community
of
practice problem. .
RESEARCH APPROACHES AND DESIGNS
A Research design is the framework or guide used for the planning, implementation and analysis of a study. It is a systematic plan of what is to be done, how it will be done and how the data will be analyzed.
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is also known as a blueprint thatresearchers select to carry out their research study,sometimes research design is used interchangeably withthe term methodology. Research design includes majorelements like:
The Approach
The Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
The Time, Place and Sources of Data collection
Tools and methods of data collection
Methods of data analysis
Research Design constitute blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Types of Research Designs and How to select good Research Design.
Slide share presentation of Research design and its types stated in simple and easy words and includes Definitions,Terms, Examples and types in order to have a basic concept of research design that plays a key role to conduct a research report.
Psychosocial care of coronavirus disease 2019Nursing Path
The novel Coronavirus (nCoV) epidemic in 2019 -2020 has recently emerged. The route of transmission is not totally known, although it is known that it can spread from person to person, and local health care systems may be ill-equipped to handle a large-scale outbreak.
The blood electrolytes—sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate—help regulate nerve and muscle function and maintain acid-base balance and water balance. ... Thus, having electrolytes in the right concentrations (called electrolyte balance) is important in maintaining fluid balance among the compartments
Hospital infection control programs can help healthcare organizations monitor and improve practices, identify risks and proactively establish policies to prevent the spread of infections
Outcome-based education (OBE) is an educational theory that bases each part of an educational system around goals (outcomes). By the end of the educational experience, each student should have achieved the goal.
Assessment is part of the everyday activities of nursing professionals. Assessment is the only way by which a teacher can know how successful his teaching was and what areas in teaching need improvement.
A mental health disorder characterised by feelings of worry, anxiety or fear that are strong enough to interfere with one's daily activities.
The term "anxiety disorder" refers to specific psychiatric disorders that involve extreme fear or worry, and includes generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder and panic attacks, agoraphobia, social anxiety disorder, selective mutism, separation anxiety, and specific phobias.
Selection and organization of learning experienceNursing Path
Curriculum is the educational design of learning experiences for the students. Curricular experiences include course content as well as learning activities. The selection and organization of curricular experiences must also reflect the philosophy of the school. The identifying and organizing of curricular experiences begins with the analysis of curriculum objectives. The most commonly used approach in selecting learning experiences is the logical approach in which the process is treated as content in curriculum development.
Universal health coverage (UHC) means that all people and communities can use the promotive, preventive, curative, rehabilitative and palliative health services they need, of sufficient quality to be effective, while also ensuring that the use of these services does not expose the user to financial hardship.
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily the small air sacs known as alveoli. Typically symptoms include some combination of productive or dry cough, chest pain, fever, and trouble breathing.
Swine influenza is an infection caused by any one of several types of swine influenza viruses. Swine influenza virus (SIV) or swine-origin influenza virus (S-OIV) is any strain of the influenza family of viruses that is endemic in pigs
Abortion is the ending of pregnancy by removing an embryo or fetus before it can survive outside the uterus. An abortion that occurs spontaneously is also known as a miscarriage.
The enterobacteriaceae basic properties.ppsx xNursing Path
The Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of Gram-negative bacteria that includes, along with many harmless symbionts, many of the more familiar pathogens, such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Yersinia pestis, Klebsiella, and Shigella.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Slack (or Teams) Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Soluti...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
Guy Korland, CEO and Co-founder of FalkorDB, will review two articles on the integration of language models with knowledge graphs.
1. Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap.
https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.08302
2. Microsoft Research's GraphRAG paper and a review paper on various uses of knowledge graphs:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/blog/graphrag-unlocking-llm-discovery-on-narrative-private-data/
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
PHP Frameworks: I want to break free (IPC Berlin 2024)Ralf Eggert
In this presentation, we examine the challenges and limitations of relying too heavily on PHP frameworks in web development. We discuss the history of PHP and its frameworks to understand how this dependence has evolved. The focus will be on providing concrete tips and strategies to reduce reliance on these frameworks, based on real-world examples and practical considerations. The goal is to equip developers with the skills and knowledge to create more flexible and future-proof web applications. We'll explore the importance of maintaining autonomy in a rapidly changing tech landscape and how to make informed decisions in PHP development.
This talk is aimed at encouraging a more independent approach to using PHP frameworks, moving towards a more flexible and future-proof approach to PHP development.
Let's dive deeper into the world of ODC! Ricardo Alves (OutSystems) will join us to tell all about the new Data Fabric. After that, Sezen de Bruijn (OutSystems) will get into the details on how to best design a sturdy architecture within ODC.
Connector Corner: Automate dynamic content and events by pushing a buttonDianaGray10
Here is something new! In our next Connector Corner webinar, we will demonstrate how you can use a single workflow to:
Create a campaign using Mailchimp with merge tags/fields
Send an interactive Slack channel message (using buttons)
Have the message received by managers and peers along with a test email for review
But there’s more:
In a second workflow supporting the same use case, you’ll see:
Your campaign sent to target colleagues for approval
If the “Approve” button is clicked, a Jira/Zendesk ticket is created for the marketing design team
But—if the “Reject” button is pushed, colleagues will be alerted via Slack message
Join us to learn more about this new, human-in-the-loop capability, brought to you by Integration Service connectors.
And...
Speakers:
Akshay Agnihotri, Product Manager
Charlie Greenberg, Host
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
2. Research approach & research design are two
terms that are frequently used
interchangeably; however research design is a
broader plan to conduct a study, & research
approach is an important element of the
research design, which governs it.
A research design is the framework or guide
used for the planning, implementation, &
analysis of a study.
It is a systematic plan of what is to be
done, how it will be done, & how the data will
be analysed.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
3. Research design basically provides an
outline of how the research will be carried
out & the methods that will be used.
It includes the descriptions of the research
approaches, dependent & independent
variables, sampling design, & planning
format for data collection, analysis &
presentation.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
4. The research design is the master plan specifying the
methods & procedures for collecting & analyzing the
needed information in a research study.
Research design can be defined as a blue print to
conduct a research study, which involves the description
of research approach, study setting, sampling
size, sampling technique, tools & method of data
collection & analysis to answer a is specific research
questions or for testing research hypothesis.
Research design is a plan of how, when & where data are
to be collected & analyzed.
Research design is the researcher’s overall plan for
answering the research questions or testing the research
hypothesis.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
7. It involves the description of the plan to investigate the
phenomenon under study in a structured
(quantitative), unstructured (qualitative) or a
combination of the two methods (quantitative-
qualitative integrated approach).
Therefore, the approach helps to decide about the
presence or absence as well as manipulation & control
over variables.
It also helps to identify the presence or absence of &
comparison between groups.
The approach of research study depends on several
factors, but primarily on the nature of phenomenon
under study.
At this stage of the research study, conceptual
framework may or may not be incorporated.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
8. Research design also provides the researcher
with directions about population, sample &
sampling technique, which will be used for the
research study.
For example, in an ethnographic qualitative
research design, a researcher gets the directive
that the population will be a specific cultural
group & the study will include a small sample
selected through a nonprobability sampling
technique.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
9. Time (specifying days, months, & years of
study), location (study setting) & the sources
of the requisite data are the other important
constituents essential to ensure effective
planning to conduct a research study.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
10. This element of research design involves the
description of different tools & methods of
data collection, for
example, questionnaires, interview, direct
observation or any other methods that suit
the particular approach of the research as
well as nature of the phenomenon under
study.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
11. A research design must also include the
description of the methods of data analysis -
either quantitative or qualitative data analysis
techniques – that helps the researcher to
collect the relevant data, which later can be
analysed as per the research design plan.
Without a formal plan of data analysis a
researcher may collect irrelevant data, which
can later become difficult to analyse.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
13. Research designs are plans & the procedures for
research that span the decisions from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection & analysis.
In order to meet the aims & objectives of a
study, researchers must select the most
appropriate design.
The selection of a research design largely
depends on the nature of the research
problem, the resources available
(cost, time, expertise of the
researcher), accessibility of subjects, & research
ethics.
However, the main factors which affect the
selection of research design are as follow:www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
14. Nature of the research problem: This is the most
important factor, which helps the researcher to
decide about the selection of a research design.
Based on the nature of research problem or
phenomenon, researchers decide whether it should
be investigated through an experimental, quasi-
experimental, or nonexperimental approach.
Purpose of the study: Study may be conducted for
the purpose of
prediction, description, exploration, or correlation
of the research variable. Therefore, the purpose of
the research study helps the researcher to choose a
suitable research design.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
15. Researcher’s knowledge & experience: Selection
of research design is largely influenced by the
researcher’s knowledge & experience, because
they avoid using those designs wherein they lack
confidence, relevant knowledge, or experience.
Researcher’s interest & motivation: Interest &
motivation levels help researchers decide about
the particular research design(s). Motivated
researchers always analyse most aspects of
research design before selecting one or a
combination, while casual & callous researchers
may choose research design(s) that may lead to
failure.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
16. Research ethics & principle: The incorporation &
application of ethical & legal principles in the
research design are essential. This includes
moral obligations such as respect for participants
& their rights, informed consent, & protection
from harm, including any adverse effects to
educational progress, health & well-being.
Selection of a research design is
significantly influenced by the ethics of the
research study. For example, a researcher may be
willing to conduct a research study through a
certain experimental approach, but problems of
ethical approval may stop the researcher to do so
& he or she may have to settle for another
available possible research design.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
17. Subjects/participants: The number & availability
of study subjects may influence the selection of
research design. If only few subjects are
involved, an in-depth qualitative researcher may
opt for qualitative research design.
Resources: None of the researcher can conduct
without resources such as
money, equipments, facilities, & support from
collegeagues. However, some of the studies
require more amounts of resources as compared
to others. Therefore, the selection of a research
design may be affected by the availability of
resources for the research study.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
18. Time: Time is also a major deciding factors for
the selection of research design. For example, a
researcher needs more time to conduct
longitudinal studies, while cross-sectional
studies may be conducted in shorter time.
Therefore, time is also a significant contributing
factor in selection of a research design.
Users of the study findings: A research design
also various methods of data collection & data
analysis. Therefore, while choosing a research
design, researcher must ensure that research
design is as appropriate for the users of the
study findings as possible, so that maximum
advantage of the results can be obtained.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
19. Possible control on extraneous variables: An
efficient design can maximize result, decrease
errors, & control pre-existing or impaired
conditions that may affect the outcome of the
study. The maximized efforts of the researcher
should maximize control. Therefore, possible
control over the extraneous variables may affect
the selection of a research design. For
example, a researcher wants to conduct a study
through true-experimental design but because
of inability to control selected extraneous
variables, other similar design has to be opted
for, such as quasi-experimental or pre-
experimental research design.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
21. There are two important criteria
for evaluating the credibility &
dependability of the research
results:
Internal validity
External validity
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
22. It validates whether the independent variables
actually made a difference.
Campbell & Stanley (1963) used the term internal
validity to refer to the extent to which it is
possible to make an inference that the
independent variable is truly influencing the
dependent variable.
In the internal validity, the independent variable
is responsible for variation in dependent
variable.
Internal validity demands a tighter control over
study to maximize the effectiveness of the
results.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
23. Internal validity is helpful in making the inference
that the independent variable influences the
dependant variable.
According to Campell & Stanley (1966), six major
extraneous variables have been identified which
can jeopardize the internal validity. They are
known as threats to the internal validity are as
follows:
History
Maturation of subjects
Testing
Instrumentation changes
Mortality
Selection bias
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
24. The threat of history occurs when some event beside
the experimental treatment occurs during the course of
study, & this events even influences dependent
variables.
For example, you are conducting a health teaching
programme on the importance of breast self
examination (BSE), while recently a famous film actress
is diagnosed to be suffering from breast cancer.
It catches media attention. Medical experts are
interviewed , & the importance of BSE is supported.
All major television channels & newspapers starts
reporting on the importance of BSE.
While you find that the BSE activity has improved, you
as a researchers may not be able to conclude if the
change in behavior is the result of your teaching
programme or it is a result of the diagnosis of the
affliction of the movie actress & the subsequent media
coverage.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
25. When experimental research is carried on for a
long period of time over a group of
subjects, there may be changes in the subjects in
different ways, like in children there is increase in
height, weight, etc.
So maturation is a threat to internal validity.
For example, a researcher is interested in
assessing the effect of particular nutritional
protocol on the weight & height of the
malnourished children.
If this experiment is conducted for vary long
period, it is difficult to make out whether the
effect on weight & height is due to maturation or
nutritional protocol.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
26. It refers to the effect of taking a pretest of
subjects’ performance post-test.
The effect of taking a pretest may sensitize
an individual & improve the score of the
post-test.
Individuals generally score higher when they
take test a second time regardless of the
treatment.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
27. Another threat related to measurement is that of
instrumentation.
This bias reflects changes in measuring
instruments or methods of measurements
between two points of data collection.
Instruments like
thermometer, sphygmomanometer, weighing
scale, tape measure, etc. should be checked for
their accuracy at regular intervals, & same
instruments should be used throughout the
study to minimize the instrument-related error
of the internal validity.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
28. Mortality is the loss or dropout of study
subjects during the course of study.
If the subjects who remain in the study or join
later are not similar to those who dropped
out, the results could be affected.
For example, a researcher conducting a
longitudinal study wherein a subject who
participated in first round of the data
collection may not be available for the second
or other rounds of data collection.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
29. If the subjects are not selected randomly for
participation in groups, then there is a
possibility that the groups which will be
compared may not be equivalent.
The effect on the dependant variable may be
due to some other factors.
For example, if two different classes are used to
test the effects of two types of lecture methods
or if subjects are selected in a nonrandom
way, the effect on the dependant variables could
be because of other heterogeneous factors
rather than the types of lecture methods.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
30. It refers to the extent to which the results can be
generalized to a large population.
External validity researches under what
conditions & in which type of subjects the same
results can be expected to be replicated, or
whether the same intervention will work in
another setting & with different subjects.
External validity explores the generalization
beyond specific experiment, to check if the
results & findings come out to be same with
other settings, or with other subjects
population, but related variables.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
31. The factors that may affect external validity
are:
Hawthorne effect
Experimental effect
Reactive effect of pretest
Novelty effect
People
Place
Time
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
32. Subjects may behave in a particular manner
because they are aware that they are being
observed & this is called the Hawthorne
Effect.
Subjects have the knowledge that they are
involved in research study, thus affecting the
result.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
33. Experimental effect is a threat to study results
when researcher’s
characteristics, mannerisms, or behavior may
influence subject behavior.
Examples of researcher’s characteristics or
behavior are facial
expressions, clothes, age, gender, body
built, etc.
Thus, the way researcher dresses up or his or
her gender can influence the way in which
respondents answer research questions.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
34. The reactive effect of the pretest occurs when
subjects have been sensitized to the treatment
because of taking a pretest.
People might not respond to the treatment in the
manner they finally do if they had not received the
pretest.
For example, a researcher wants to conduct a study
to assess the effect of a health education programme
on the awareness of HIV/AIDS among people.
In this instance, researcher conducts a pretest to
collect baseline data before health education.
This pretest may sensitize the subjects to learn about
the HIV/AIDS irrespective of health education is
provided or not to the subject.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
35. When a treatment is new, subjects &
researcher might behave in different ways.
They may be enthusiastic about new methods
of doing things. Once treatment is more
familiar & as the novelty wears off, results
might different.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
36. For example people of a specific race such as
whites have high prevalence of coronary
artery disease compared to the blacks.
Therefore, a generalization made for whites
will not be applicable for blacks. Hence, this
is threat to external validity.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
37. For example the people living in high
altitudes have high hemoglobin (Hb) levels
because at higher altitudes the requirement
of oxygen is more, due to which there is
more production of red blood cells (RBCs).
However, the Hb level of the people living on
the plains is lower in comparison, so a
generalization for people of hilly areas is not
applicable for people living on plains.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
38. If a research was carried out on a community
in 1990 & then again in 2000, the results of
these two researches would be different.
Therefore, older results cannot be
generalized over periods of time as societies
& circumstances constantly change.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
40. Generally research designs are
classified into two broad categories, &
several subtypes
1. Quantitative research design
2. Qualitative research design
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
42. Broad Categories Types of Research Design Main Features
I. Experimental
research design
1. True experimental
design
- Post-test –only control
design
- Pre-test-posttest control
group design
- Solomon four-group
design
- Factorial design
- Randomized block
design
- Crossover design
Manipulation of independent
variable, in the presence of
control group,
randomization
2. Quasi-experimental
design
- Nonrandomized control
group design
- Time-series design
Manipulation of independent
variable, but absence of
either randomization or
control group.
3. Pre-experimental design
- One-shot case design
- One-group pretest-
post-test design
Manipulation of independent
variables, but limited control
over extraneous variables,
no randomization & control
group.
www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
43. Broad Categories Types of Research Design Main Features
II. Nonexperimental
research design
1. Descriptive design
- Univariant descriptive
design
- Exploratory descriptive
design
- Comparative
descriptive design
Accurate description of
characteristics of individual,
situation, or group, & the
frequency with which a
certain phenomenon occurs
in natural setting without
imposing any control or
manipulation
Univariant descriptive:
Studies undertaken to
describe the frequency of
occurrence of a phenomenon
rather than to study
relationship
Exploratory: Investigating
the phenomenon & its
related factors about which
very little is known
Comparative: Comparing
occurrences of a
phenomenon in two or more
group.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
44. Broad Categories Types of Research Design Main Features
2. Correlational/Ex post
facto design
- Prospective design
- Retrospective design
Examining the relationship
between two or more variables in
a natural setting without
manipulation or control (cause &
effect relationship)
Prospective: Examining
relationship from cause to effect.
Retrospective: Examining
relationship from effect to cause
3. Developmental
Research Design
- Cross-sectional design
- Longitudinal design
Examining the phenomenon in
respect to the time
Cross-sectional: Examining the
phenomenon only at one point in
time
Longitudinal: Examining the
phenomenon at more than one
point in time.
4. Epidemiological design
-Case-control studies
- cohort studies
The investigation of the
distribution & causes of disease
in a population is known as
epidemiology.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
45. Broad Categories Types of Research Design Main Features
5. Survey research design Survey studies are
investigation in which self-
reported data are collected
from sample with the
purpose of describing
population on some
variables of interest.
III. Other
additional
research design
1. Methodological studies Research conducted to
develop, test, & evaluate the
research instruments &
method.
2. Meta-analysis Quantitatively combing &
integrating the findings of
the multiple research studies
on a particular topic.
3. Secondary data analysis A research design in which
the data collected in one
research is reanalysed by
another researcher, usually
to test new hypotheses.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
46. Broad Categories Types of Research Design Main Features
4. Outcome research Outcome research involves
the evaluation of care
practices & systems in place.
It is used in nursing to
develop evidence-based
practice & improve nursing
actions.
5. Evaluation studies It is research design which
involves the judgment about
success of a programmes,
practices, procedures, or
policies.
6. Operational research Operational research
involves the study of
complex human
organizations & services to
develop new knowledge
about institutions,
programmes, use of
facilities, & personnel in
order to improve working
efficiency of an organizationwww.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in
48. Types of research designs Main features
Phenomenological
research
Phenomenological research examines human
experiences through the descriptions provided by
people involved.
Ethnographic research Ethnographic research involves the information
collected from certain cultural groups, by living with
people of those groups & from their key informants,
who are believed to be most knowledgeable about
the selected culture.
Grounded theory Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of
data acquired by a participant-observer
Case studies Research on a phenomenon by studying in depth a
single case example. The case can be an individual
person , an event , a group, or an institution.
Historical research Systematic collection & objective evaluation of data
related to past occurrences in order to test
hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of
these events that may help to explain present
events & anticipate future events.
Action research Action research seeks action to improve practices &
study the effect of the action that was taken.www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.in