The document discusses the internal environment of multicellular organisms. It defines the internal environment as the space inside organisms filled with air or interstitial fluid. The internal environment consists of interstitial fluid and blood plasma that exchange nutrients and waste. Physical factors like temperature and chemical factors like pH and salt levels must be maintained within a constant range for optimal cell function, through a process called homeostasis. Homeostasis uses receptors, control centers, and effectors in a negative feedback loop to regulate the internal environment. For example, sweating cools the body if temperature rises above 37°C. The document emphasizes that a stable internal environment allows cells and their metabolic processes to function properly.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
All living organism can be categorized as prokaryotes or eukaryotes according to their cell type. This article deals with detailed about prokaryotes and eukaryotes with examples and figures and their similarities and dissimilarities.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
All living organism can be categorized as prokaryotes or eukaryotes according to their cell type. This article deals with detailed about prokaryotes and eukaryotes with examples and figures and their similarities and dissimilarities.
09.22.08: Histology of the Peripheral Nervous SystemOpen.Michigan
Slideshow is from the University of Michigan Medical School's M1 Cells and Tissues Sequence
View additional course materials on Open.Michigan:
openmi.ch/med-M1CellsTissues
09.22.08: Histology of the Peripheral Nervous SystemOpen.Michigan
Slideshow is from the University of Michigan Medical School's M1 Cells and Tissues Sequence
View additional course materials on Open.Michigan:
openmi.ch/med-M1CellsTissues
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DISSERTATION on NEW DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF DRUG DISCOVERYNEHA GUPTA
The process of drug discovery and development is a complex and multi-step endeavor aimed at bringing new pharmaceutical drugs to market. It begins with identifying and validating a biological target, such as a protein, gene, or RNA, that is associated with a disease. This step involves understanding the target's role in the disease and confirming that modulating it can have therapeutic effects. The next stage, hit identification, employs high-throughput screening (HTS) and other methods to find compounds that interact with the target. Computational techniques may also be used to identify potential hits from large compound libraries.
Following hit identification, the hits are optimized to improve their efficacy, selectivity, and pharmacokinetic properties, resulting in lead compounds. These leads undergo further refinement to enhance their potency, reduce toxicity, and improve drug-like characteristics, creating drug candidates suitable for preclinical testing. In the preclinical development phase, drug candidates are tested in vitro (in cell cultures) and in vivo (in animal models) to evaluate their safety, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. Toxicology studies are conducted to assess potential risks.
Before clinical trials can begin, an Investigational New Drug (IND) application must be submitted to regulatory authorities. This application includes data from preclinical studies and plans for clinical trials. Clinical development involves human trials in three phases: Phase I tests the drug's safety and dosage in a small group of healthy volunteers, Phase II assesses the drug's efficacy and side effects in a larger group of patients with the target disease, and Phase III confirms the drug's efficacy and monitors adverse reactions in a large population, often compared to existing treatments.
After successful clinical trials, a New Drug Application (NDA) is submitted to regulatory authorities for approval, including all data from preclinical and clinical studies, as well as proposed labeling and manufacturing information. Regulatory authorities then review the NDA to ensure the drug is safe, effective, and of high quality, potentially requiring additional studies. Finally, after a drug is approved and marketed, it undergoes post-marketing surveillance, which includes continuous monitoring for long-term safety and effectiveness, pharmacovigilance, and reporting of any adverse effects.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
6. Internal Environment Nutrient and waste substances are exchanged between the interstitial fluid and the blood plasma contained in the blood capillaries.
7.
8.
9. What is the mechanism which regulates the physical & chemical factors in the internal environment??
11. Homeostasis Homeostasis is a process that regulates the chemical and physical parameters in the internal environment so that the conditions are always suitable to meet the needs of cells.
12. Homeostasis 3 functional components pf homeostatic control system: a receptor- detect a change (stimuli) a control centre- receive message from receptors and process the information an effector- receive message from control centre and carry out the appropriate response.
18. The important of regulating an optimal internal environment Enables the organism to live in wider range of habitats. Metabolic activities and physiological processes can still continue even though the external environment fluctuates substantially. A stable internal environment allows enzymes to function aat an optimal rate.
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