The document discusses several body systems including the hormonal, cardiovascular, muscular, and immune systems. It provides information on the major organs, functions, and mechanisms of each system. It also describes some common disorders that can affect the cardiovascular and muscular systems. The document contains detailed information on the structure and processes of multiple body systems.

1. Unit -3
Different Types of Intelligent body systems

2. Topics to be covered
1. Hormonal System
2. Cardiovascular System
3. Muscular system
4. Immune System
5. Lecture: 5h
6. Tutorial: 2h

3. Human body organization
The human body is organized in several levels, from the simplest to the
most complex:
1. Cells – the basic unit of life
2. Tissues – clusters of cells performing a similar function
3. Organs – made of tissues that perform one specific function
4. Systems – groups of organs that perform a specific purpose in the
human body
All these above levels work in coordination to one another and allows
the maintenance & regulation of the stability and constancy needed to
function properly. In other words, they function towards keeping a
body in good shape of health.

4. Types of Tissues
Human tissues are categorized in 4 types:
1. muscle tissue
2. epithelial tissue
3. connective tissue
4. nervous tissue
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dva-f_btvlk

5. Human body systems
The 11 human body systems are as follows:
1. Nervous system
2. Integumentary system
3. lymphatic (or immune) system
4. Endocrine (or hormonal) system
5. Respiratory system
6. Circulatory (or cardiovascular) system
7. Muscular system
8. Digestive system
9. Excretory system
10.Reproductive system
11.Skeletal system

6. Hormonal System
The hormonal system (also called the
endocrine system) is a network of
glands and organs in the body that
produce hormones.
Purpose: to control growth,
development, metabolism and
reproduction through the production
and secretion of hormones
Cell type – epithelial
Major organs: 1. hypothalamus 2.
pituitary gland 3. thyroid 4. parathyroid
5. adrenal glands 6. pancreas 7. testes
8. ovaries

7. Importance of Endocrine System
 Controls all the metabolic activities of the body.
 Made up of a series of glands: organs which produce and release
chemical messengers, generally into the bloodstream.
 The chemical messengers are called hormones and they affect the
behavior of cells.
 Only cells with receptors respond to hormones
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLdNX5Te1Xo

8. Control of Endocrine Activity
The concentration of hormone as seen by target cells is determined by three factors:
Rate of production: Synthesis and secretion of hormones are the most highly
regulated aspect of endocrine control. Such control is mediated by positive and
negative feedback circuits.
 Rate of delivery: An example of this effect is blood flow to a target organ or group of
target cells - high blood flow delivers more hormone than low blood flow.
 Rate of degradation and elimination: Hormones, like all biomolecules, have
characteristic rates of decay, and are metabolized and excreted from the body
through several routes. Shutting off secretion of a hormone having very short halflife
causes circulating hormone concentration to rapidly fall down, but if a hormone's
biological half-life is long, effective concentrations persist for some time after
secretion ceases.

9. Hormones Groups
There are three basic group of hormones.
1. Amino acid derivatives: These are small molecules and they come from
amino acids like tyrosine and tryptophan. One hormone derived from
tryptophan is melatonin. A hormone involved in our sleepwake cycles.
You can get tryptophan from foods like turkey, chocolate or milk.
2. Peptide hormones: Peptide hormones are made up of a bunch of amino
acids. Examples would be some thyroid-stimulating hormone, oxytocin
or prolactin.
3. Lipid derivatives or steroid hormones: Lipid derivatives or steroid
hormones are considered lipophilic meaning they have an affinity for
lipid structures. They circulate in the blood bound to carrier proteins so
they usually last in the circulation longer than other types of hormones.

10. Mechanism of Hormone action
The endocrine system is a very important and very involved system
within our bodies.
It allows our body to communicate over long distances and is a major
player in regulating a stable environment or in other words preserving
homeostasis (good health).
This system employs the use of hormones which are chemicals
secreted from glands and enter the bloodstream where they circulate
until exerting an effect on a downstream target cell.
Specifically, there are two types of mechanisms in which hormones
exert their effect on target cells:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TgNwxF3aQpE

11. non-steroid(Peptide) hormone
• The first is by and non-steroid action. This mechanism is employed by an amino
acid hormone or a peptide hormone. These hormones cannot freely cross a
membrane on a target cell so it first acts by binding a cell surface receptor. There
is then an intracellular signaling cascade that occurs in order for the desired
effect to take place.
• There are proteins on the intracellular side of the target cell that are associated
with the receptor. Most often this involves what's called a G-protein. This G
protein is found next to an enzyme that converts ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to
a molecule called cyclic AMP (Cyclic adenosine monophosphate) or cAMP. This is
something that makes this mechanism unique. Cyclic AMP is called a second
messenger because it signals a cascade of events that eventually change the
enzymatic activity in a cell to cause the target cell response.
• Examples of hormones that use the cyclic AMP
• second messenger system include ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone),
calcitonin, epinephrine, glucagon, parathyroid hormone and ADH (Antidiuretic
hormone).

12. Steroid Hormones
• The second mechanism is the steroid action. Because lipid derivative or
steroid hormones are lipophilic, they can freely move through the
membrane and into the cell. From there they can either bind to a
receptor within the cell or they can move freely into the nucleus where
the hormone or hormone complex causes a change in gene activity. This
then increases transcription (Transcription is the process by which the
information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of
messenger RNA (mRNA)) and mRNA production which then leads to an
increase in protein production within the cell.
• Examples of hormones that exert effects via steroid hormone
Mechanisms are testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, and
calcitriol.

13. Common endocrine disorders
Common endocrine disorders include:
• Diabetes mellitus, acromegaly (overproduction of growth hormone),
• Addison’s disease (decreased production of hormones by the adrenal glands),
• Cushing’s syndrome (high cortisol levels for extended periods of time),
• Graves’ disease (type of hyperthyroidism resulting in excessive thyroid hormone
production),
• Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (autoimmune disease resulting in hypothyroidism and low
production of thyroid hormone),
• Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid),
• hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid), and
• prolactinoma (overproduction of prolactin by the pituitary gland).

14. Cardiovascular (or circulatory) system
The circulatory system, also called the
cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is
an organ system that permits blood to circulate
and transport nutrients (such as amino acids
and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide,
hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells
in the body to provide nourishment and help in
fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH,
and maintain homeostasis.
• Purpose: to deliver oxygenated blood to the
various cells and organ systems in your body
so they can undergo cellular respiration
• Cell type – Muscle

15. Cardiovascular System

16. Major Organ and Function
Heart
• -the major muscle of the circulatory system
• -pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs, where it gets oxygenated,
returned to the heart, and then pumped out through the aorta to the
rest of the body
• -valve regulate the flow of blood between the chambers

17. Organ system Interactions
• With lungs – exchange O2 & CO2
• With digestive system - pick up nutrients for transport throughout the
body
• With excretory – blood is filtered to remove toxins and some water
• Nervous system – heart-beat regulation & blood pressure

18. Constitution of CVS
• Heart. This muscular organ works to pump blood throughout your
body via an intricate network of blood vessels.
• Arteries. These thick-walled blood vessels carry oxygenated blood
away from your heart.
• Veins. These blood vessels carry deoxygenated blood back toward
your heart.
• Capillaries. These tiny blood vessels facilitate the exchange of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste between your circulatory system and your organs
and tissues.

19. Working of CVS
• Oxygen-depleted blood returns to the heart (the right side) via the veins.
• The heart pumps this blood to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood gets rid of
carbon dioxide and picks up fresh oxygen.
• Newly oxygenated blood returns to the other side of the heart (the left
side), where it’s then pumped into the arteries.
• Eventually, the blood enters the capillaries. Here, it releases oxygen and
nutrients to the body’s organs and tissues. It then picks up carbon dioxide
and other waste products.
• The oxygen-depleted blood returns to the heart through the veins, and the
cycle begins all over again.

20. Types of circulation
1)Pulmonary: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDk8fmIl9V8
• In the pulmonary loop, deoxygenated blood exits the right ventricle of the heart
and passes through the pulmonary trunk.
• The pulmonary trunk splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries. These
arteries transport the deoxygenated blood to arterioles and capillary beds in the
lungs.
• There, carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is absorbed. Oxygenated blood then
passes from the capillary beds through venules into the pulmonary veins.
• The pulmonary veins transport it to the left atrium of the heart.
• The pulmonary arteries are the only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood, and
the pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry oxygenated blood.

21. Cont…
2) Systemic: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DNNFA0-fozE
• During the systemic loop blood moves through arteries and flows into capillary
beds here oxygen is released and diffuses through the capillary wall into tissues
meanwhile carbon dioxide diffuses into the bloodstream.
• In the systemic loop, oxygenated blood is pumped from the left ventricle of the
heart through the aorta, the largest artery in the body. The blood moves from the
aorta through the systemic arteries, then to arterioles and capillary beds that
supply body tissues. Here, oxygen and nutrients are released and carbon dioxide
and other waste substances are absorbed. Deoxygenated blood then moves from
the capillary beds through venules into the systemic veins. The systemic veins
feed into the inferior and superior venae cavae, the largest veins in the body. The
venae cavae flow deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.

22. Diseases related to the circulatory system
Diseases that can affect the circulatory system include:
1. Atherosclerosis
• Atherosclerosis is a hardening of the arteries.
• It is typically caused by a diet high in fat, which leaves fatty deposits on the lining
of the blood vessels. These fatty deposits stick together and make the arteries
hard and less flexible. Atherosclerosis leads to high blood pressure, which can
damage the heart and kidneys and even lead to strokes.
2. Heart attack
• Myocardial infarction (MI) is the technical term for a heart attack. A heart attack
can occur when the blood supply is cut off from the heart, often by a blood clot.
Some heart attacks are minor, but others can be life-threatening.
3. Angina pectoris
• Angina pectoris means “pain in the chest” and occurs if the heart is not receiving
enough blood. People often describe it as a crushing sensation or feeling like their
chest is in a vice.

23. Cont…
4. Arrhythmia and dysrhythmia
• Arrhythmia and dysrhythmia are often used interchangeably, and both refer to abnormal heart
rates and rhythms. In general, arrhythmia means “no rhythm” and dysrhythmia means “abnormal
rhythm.”
5. Heart failure
• Heart failure means that the heart is not pumping blood around the body as efficiently as it
should. It can lead to fatigue, shortness of breath, and coughing.
• Some people with heart failure find it difficult to do things such as walking, climbing stairs, or
carrying groceries.
6. High blood pressure (hypertension)
• High blood pressure or hypertension means the force or pressure of the blood flowing through
the vessels is consistently too high. High blood pressure can lead to stroke, loss of vision, heart
failure, heart attack, kidney disease, and reduced sexual function.
7. Stroke
• A stroke can happen when one of the vessels that lead to the brain either becomes blocked by a
blood clot or bursts. This stops blood flow and prevents oxygen from getting to the brain.

24. Muscular system
• They make 1/3rd weight of body.
Blood vessels and nerves run to every
muscle, helping control and regulate
each muscle’s function.
• Purpose: works with the skeletal and
nervous system to produce
movement, also helps to circulate
blood through the human body
• Cells: muscle cells are fibrous --
muscle contractions can be voluntary
or involuntary makes up to 40 – 50%
of the body mass

25. Components

26. Major Muscles in Human Body

27. Types of Muscles
Three types of muscles:
• skeletal - attach to and move
bones by contracting and
relaxing in response to
voluntary messages from the
nervous system. They have
*striated structure
• 1. smooth - internal organs
(except heart), one nucleus,
non-striated, involuntary
control
• 2. cardiac - heart, one nucleus,
striated, involuntary control,
has its own pacemaker
• 3. Skeleton- Arms and Legs

28. Working of muscular system
• Muscle contraction begins when the nervous system generates a signal.
• The signal, an impulse called an action potential, travels through a type of
nerve cell called a motor neuron.
• The neuromuscular junction is the name of the place where the motor
neuron reaches a muscle cell. Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of cells
called muscle fibers.
• When the nervous system signal reaches the neuromuscular junction, a
chemical message is released by the motor neuron.
• The chemical message, a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, binds to
receptors on the outside of the muscle fiber. That starts a chemical
reaction within the muscle, to make it contract.
https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=VVL-8zr2hk4

29. Cont..
• A multistep molecular process within the muscle fiber begins when
acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane.
• The proteins inside muscle fibers are organized into long chains that can
interact with each other, reorganizing to shorten and relax.
• When acetylcholine reaches receptors on the membranes of muscle fibers,
membrane channels open and the process that contracts a relaxed muscle
fibers begins.
• When the stimulation of the motor neuron providing the impulse to the
muscle fibers stops, the chemical reaction that causes the rearrangement
of the muscle fibers proteins is stopped.
• This reverses the chemical processes in the muscle fibers and the muscle
relaxes

30. Common muscular disorder
Common muscular disorder is-
• Muscular dystrophy: Group of inherited diseases characterized by
weakness and wasting away of muscle tissue, with or without the
breakdown of nerve tissue.
• Neuromuscular disorders: Spinal muscular atrophies, Inflammatory
myopathies, Diseases of peripheral nerve.

31. Lymphatic (or immune) system
• Immune system is a biological
structures and processes
within an organism that
protect against disease by
identifying and killing
pathogens and cancer-cells.
• Purpose: to remove
infectious diseases and other
pathogens from the human
body
• Cell type - Epithelial

32. Lymphatic (or immune) system
Our immune system is
essential for our survival.
Without an immune system,
our bodies would be open to
attack from bacteria, viruses,
parasites, and more. It is our
immune system that keeps us
healthy as we drift through a
sea of pathogens.

33. Major Organs of the immune system and Their Functions
• Skin: also called the integumentary system, the skin is the body’s first line of
defense
• White Blood Cells:
--recognize disease agents (antigens) and create antibodies to tag and remove
these antigens
--phagocytes are the white blood cell type that actually eats and destroys these
antigens
• Lymph Nodes: help restore fluid lost by the blood and return it to the circulatory
system
• Spleen: produces and stores white blood cells
• Thymus: site of white blood cell maturation

34. Distribution & Mechanism of immune system:
• For detail working of immune system watch this video @
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzunOgYHeyg
• Our body has a powerful army that protects it from various types of
threats. These threats can come in the form of mechanical injuries,
the entry of germs, or the entry of other foreign particles like dust.
This personal army is called the immune system.
• Every day, we encounter a huge number of bacteria, viruses and other
disease-causing organisms. However, we don't fall ill every other day.
Which is due to our immune system - an army of cells that is always
roaming our body, ready to fight off any attack.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxC-3MpIMUo&t=146s

35. Immunity types

36. Classification of immune system
The immune system can be broadly divided into two parts - innate and adaptive immunity.
1) Innate immunity or non-specific immunity is the body's first natural defense to any
intruder. This system doesn't care what it is killing.
• Its primary goal is to prevent any intruder from entering the body, and if it does enter, then
the immune system kills this intruder. It doesn't differentiate between one pathogen and
another.
First line of action: Physical barriers:
• a) The first component of this defensive system is your skin. Any organism trying to get into
the body is stopped by the skin, our largest organ, which covers us.
• b) Secondly, there is the mucous lining of all our organs. The sticky, viscous fluid of this
lining traps any pathogens trying to get past it.

37. Innate immunity or non-specific immunity
Chemical barriers:
• a) such as the lysozyme in the eyes that comes out with tears,
• b) or the acid in the stomach, which kill pathogens trying to gain entry
into organs of the body.
• c) The genitourinary tract and other places have their own normal
flora, or microbial community. These compete with pathogens for
space and food, and therefore also act as a barrier.

38. Innate immunity or non-specific immunity
The next line of defence are:
• which is done by mast cells. These cells are constantly searching for
suspicious objects in the body. When they find something, they release a
signal in the form of histamine molecules. These alert the body, and blood
is rushed to the problem area. This causes inflammation (eg. Mosquito
bite) and also brings leukocytes, or white blood cells, which are soldiers in
our body's cellular army. Once they come, all hell breaks loose!
• Sometimes however, the intruder may not be germ, but rather a harmless
thing like a dust particle. The body still causes a full immune reaction to
this intruder, which is how allergic reactions occur.

39. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSRJfaAY
kW4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxC-3MpIMUo&t=146s

40. Cont….
• In our body, the leukocytes are VIPs and they have an access to the
whole body, except, to the brain and spinal cord.
• Our leukocytes come in many types.
• Those that belong to the innate system are the (i) phagocytes. These
cells can either patrol your body, or they can stay in certain places and
wait for their turn to act.
• (ii)Neutrophils are the most abundant cells. They patrol the body and
can therefore get to attack site very quickly. These cellular soldiers kill
the infectious cell and then die, which leads to pus formation.

41. • (iii)There are also the macrophages. These cells are like hungry monsters
who simply engulf unwanted pathogens. Instead of roaming freely in our
blood, they are collected in certain places. These cells can consume about
100 pathogens before they die, but they can also detect our own cells that
have been infected, such as cancer cells, and kill them too.
• (iv) Beyond that, we also have the Natural Killer Cells (NKC). These cells
can efficiently detect when our own cells have gone infected. NKCs detect a
protein produced by normal cells, called the Major Histocompatibility
Complex (MHC). Basically, whenever a cell isn't normal, it stops producing
this protein. The NKCs move around constantly, checking our cells for this
type of deficiency, and when they find an abnormal cell, they simply bind
to it and release chemicals that will destroy it.

42. Cont…
• (v) The last cells of our innate immune system are the dendritic cells. These
are found in places that come in contact with the outside environment,
such as the nose, lungs, etc. They are the link between our innate and
adaptive immune systems. They eat a pathogen, and then carry
information about it to our adaptive immune system cells. This information
is produced and shared in the form of antigens. Antigens are the traces
that pathogens leave around. They are molecules found on the surface on
pathogens that can be detected by our adaptive immune system for
recognition. The dendritic cells pass on this information to our T cells.
However, macrophages can also perform this function.

43. Adaptive or acquired immune system.
2) Adaptive or acquired immune system
• This system is more efficient, as it can differentiate between different types
of pathogens. It has 2 main components - B lymphocytes (B-cells) and T
lymphocytes (T-cells). Together they form humoral immune response.
• B-cells join the fight when the pathogens have entered, but haven't yet
caused any disease. T-cells come into play when an infection has already
occurred, thus bringing about the cell-mediated immune response.
• T lymphocytes (T-cells): Some T-cells take signals from the dendritic cells
or macrophages, and are thus called helper T-cells. They perform two key
tasks: forming effector T-cells, which are basically cells that cycle through
the body and call in the other soldier cells to fight, namely white blood
cells.

44. Cont…
• Helper T-cells also form memory T-cells, which keep a record of this
antigen for future reference.
• Sometimes, the same cells of our body know that they have lost the battle.
Essentially, the affected area or organ become heavily infected with
pathogens, so there is no hope for such infected cells. At this point, the
immune system brings out the cytotoxic t cells. These cells rush over and
perform a mercy killing for the infected and dying cell.
• B lymphocytes (B-cells): They produce chemicals called antibodies, which
fit on the antigens of pathogens, like a lock and key fitting. These
antibodies crowd around a pathogen and act like tags. They signal the
macrophages to come and kill the marked pathogen.
• B-cells also produce memory B-cells when they encounter an antigen.

45. Cont…
• Further The B- and T- memory cells jointly maintain a record of all
encountered infections, and thus strengthen and solidify the body’s
immune response to these infections.
• Our innate immune response is quicker, though non-specific. It gets
into action within hours and is quite strong. However, when things get
out of hand, the innate system calls for help from the acquired
immune system. This system can take days to start a response, but
the next time we encounter that pathogen, it won’t make us get sick.
• In short, every day that we spend being healthy is all thanks to our
immune system.

46. What is herd Immunity?
• Herd immunity', also known as 'population immunity', is the indirect
protection from an infectious disease that happens when a
population is immune either through vaccination or immunity
developed through previous infection.
• WHO supports achieving 'herd immunity' through vaccination, not by
allowing a disease to spread through any segment of the
population, as this would result in unnecessary cases and deaths.
• Herd immunity against COVID-19 should be achieved by protecting
people through vaccination, not by exposing them to the pathogen
that causes the disease.

47. Common immune system disorders
There are two types of immunodeficiency disorders: those you are born
with (primary), and those that are acquired (secondary). Anything that
weakens your immune system can lead to a secondary
immunodeficiency disorder.
Immunodeficiency disorders prevent your body from fighting infections
and diseases. This type of disorder makes it easier for you to catch
viruses and bacterial infections.
Examples of primary immunodeficiency disorders include:
• X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA)
• common variable immunodeficiency (CVID)
• severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), which is known as
alymphocytosis or “boy in a bubble” disease

48. Diseases
Examples of secondary immunodeficiency disorders include:
• AIDS
• cancers of the immune system, like leukemia
• immune-complex diseases, like viral hepatitis
• multiple myeloma (cancer of the plasma cells, which produce
antibodies)

49. • End