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Intelligence
The document discusses various theories of intelligence, highlighting historical perspectives from early tests by Sir Francis Galton to contemporary theories by figures like Gardner and Sternberg. It emphasizes the evolution from factor theories, such as Spearman's g factor, to multifactor, hierarchical, and cognitive process-oriented theories, addressing intelligence's diverse nature and contextual influences. Additionally, it introduces concepts of emotional intelligence and cognitive development through Piaget's stages, as well as distinctions between aptitude and achievement.
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Similar to Intelligence
Intelligence
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- 2. Overview Introduction Factortheories Contemporary theories Piaget’s theory Aptitude Achievement
- 3. Introduction Intelligence ishard to define Two groups of psychologists Factor theories Process oriented theories of intelligence
- 4. Historical aspect Firstattempt to develop tests was made by Sir Francis Galton. He believed that some families are superior than others biologically. In 1881, French government made school compulsory for children. Alfred Binet as given the responsibility of creating a test to detect children who were too slow for regular school. Binet assumed that intelligence should be measured by tasks that required reasoning and problem solving. Concept of mental age was critical to his method.
- 5. Factor theories Thequestion for factor theorist is whether intelligence is a single characteristic or a collection of distinguishable abilities. Many use statistical technique of factor analysis. It is a way of identifying groups of abilities or behaviors or traits that are related to each other Factor analysis poses certain problems as different methods can yield different results, hard to judge which factors are best, and most basic is that it is a psychologist’s interpretation.
- 7. Wechsler believedthat ‘intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment’ (Wechsler, 1958) Binet also assumed intelligence to be a general capacity for comprehension and reasoning that manifests itself in various ways.
- 8. G factortheory – By British psychologist Charles Spearman (1927) Proposed that a general intelligence factor lay beneath the surface. Person who score high on one test score high on others as well Each test taps both the general intelligence ‘G’, and the specific ability ‘S’ Test which yield one score eg IQ, are a reflection of his views.
- 9. Multifactor theories In contrast to Spearman, they propose that intelligence has multiple components. Certain cluster of test show higher correlation with each other. L. L. Thurstone (1938) devised the Primary Mental Abilities Test. He had a set of 56 tests Classified into verbal comprehension, word fluency, perceptual speed, memory, numerical ability, spatial ability, and reasoning. J. P. Guilford (1967) gave three dimensional cubical model. 120 factors of intelligence. His concept of intelligence includes divergent thinking as opposed to convergent thinking.
- 11. Hierarchical theories Some psychologists proposed to combine both G-factor theories and multifactorial theories to form a hierarchical theory. Intelligence is pictured as a sort of pyramid. G is at the top of the pyramid, underneath it is specific abilities and at the bottom is highly specific abilities similar to spearman’s S factors.
- 13. Contemporary theories Untilthe1960s, research had a factorial approach. Due to emergence of cognitive psychology, the focus shifted to explain intelligence on the basis of cognitive processes. Rather than factors, mental processes that underlie intelligent behavior were explored.
- 14. The information-processingapproach asks: 1. What mental processes are involved in the various tests of intelligence? 2. How rapidly and accurately are these processes carried out? 3. What types of mental representations of information do these processes act upon?
- 15. Gardner’s theory ofmultiple intelligences Gardner was struck by the variety of adult roles in different cultures He defines an intelligence as the ‘ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community’ (1993b, p. 15) Gardener describes intelligence as a potential which allows an individual access to forms of thinking appropriate to specific kinds of content.
- 17. Anderson’s theory ofintelligence and cognitive development Differences in intelligence result from differences in the ‘basic processing mechanism’ that implements thinking, which in turn yields knowledge. Anderson notes, however, that there are some cognitive mechanisms that show no individual differences. The mechanisms that provide universal capacities are ‘modules’. According to Anderson, it is the maturation of new modules that explains the increase of cognitive abilities in the course of development.
- 18. In additionto modules, according to Anderson, intelligence includes two ‘specific abilities’ - propositional thought (language mathematical expression) and visual and spatial functioning. He suggests that the tasks associated with these abilities are carried out by ‘specific processors’ A high-speed processing mechanism enables a person to make more effective use of the specific processors to score higher on tests and accomplish more in the real world. Anderson’s theory of intelligence thus suggests two different ‘routes’ to knowledge.
- 19. Sternberg’s triarchic theory Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory addresses experience and context as well as basic information-processing mechanisms His theory has three parts or subtheories: the componential subtheory, which deals with thought processes; experiential subtheory, which deals with the effects of experience on intelligence; contextual subtheory, which considers the effects of the individual’s environment and culture. The most highly developed of these subtheories is the componential subtheory.
- 20. The componentialtheory considers the components of thought. It has three components : Metacomponents are used to plan, control, monitor, and evaluate processing during problem solving. Performance components carry out problem-solving strategies. Sternberg (1985) now calls these creative abilities. Knowledge-acquisition components encode, combine, and compare information during the course of problem solving. Sternberg (1985) now calls these practical abilities A series of experiments with analogical problems led Sternberg to conclude that the critical components were the encoding process and the comparison process.
- 21. The experientialsubtheory is needed to account for the role of experience in intelligent performance. An individual’s experience with a task or problem thus falls somewhere along a continuum that extends from totally novel to completely automatic A person’s exposure to particular concepts depends to a large extent on the environment. This is where the contextual subtheory comes in. It focuses on three mental processes: adaptation, selection, and shaping of real-world environments.
- 22. Ceci’s bioecological theory Ceci’s bioecological theory proposes that there are ‘multiple cognitive potentials’, rather than a single underlying general intelligence or G. These multiple abilities, or intelligences, are biologically based and place limits on mental processes. According to Ceci, everyday or real-world intellectual performance cannot be explained by IQ alone, instead, it depends on the interaction between multiple cognitive potentials with a rich, well- organized knowledge base
- 23. Context isessential for demonstration of cognitive abilities. By context he means, domains of knowledge as well as factors like personality, motivation and education. Contexts can be physical, mental or social. ‘The bottom line . . . Is that the ecological niche one occupies, including individual and historical development, is a far more potent determinant of one’s professional and economic success than is IQ’ Longitudinal study of high IQ children by Lewis Terman.
- 24. Theory Decription Gardner’s theoryIntelligence is an ability to solve problems or create products that are of value in a particular culture. Anderson’s theory Intelligence is a basic processing mechanism, along with specific processors that deal with propositional thought and visual and spatial functioning. Sternberg’s triarchic theory It consists of three subtheories: the componential theory, which looks at internal information-processing mechanisms; the experiential subtheory, which takes into account the individual’s experience with a task or situation; and the contextual subtheory, which explores the relationship between the external environment and the individual’s intelligence. Ceci’s bioecological theory Intelligence involves multiple cognitive potentials that are biologically based, but their expression depends on the knowledge an individual has amassed in a particular domain.
- 25. Emotional Intelligence DanielGoldman popularized the term. Based on Mayer and Salovey, who suggest that there are 4 components to emotional intelligence. Accurate perception and expression Ability to access and generate emotions Understanding emotions and emotional meanings Emotional regulation Increasing evidence that emotional intelligence is important for success and well-being. Eg, psychotherapies, cardiac patients, managerial training.
- 26. Piaget’s theory ofcognitive development Piaget became interested in the relationship between the child’s naturally maturing abilities and his or her interactions with the environment. He viewed children as ‘inquiring scientists’ Construct schemas Assimilate Accommodate Four stages –Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete operational and Formal operational
- 27. Sensorimotor stage(birth–2 years) Infants are busy discovering the relationships between their actions and the consequences of those actions. Object permanence - the awareness that an object continues to exist even when it is not present. Not until about 1 year of age will a child consistently look for an object where it was last seen, regardless of what happened on previous trials.
- 28. The preoperationalstage (2–7 years) The child does not yet comprehend certain rules or operations. An operation is a mental routine for separating, combining, and otherwise transforming information in a logical manner. Conservation - the understanding that the amount of a substance remains the same even when its form is changed. Piaget believed that preoperational thinking is dominated by visual impressions. Egocentrism – The child believes that everyone else perceives the environment the same way they do.
- 29. Operational stages Concrete operational (7-11 years) Formal operational (11 years and up) Concrete operational stage: Although children are using abstract terms, they are doing so only in relation to concrete objects – objects to which they have direct sensory access. At about the age of 11 or 12, children arrive at adult modes of thinking. In the formal operational stage, the person is able to reason in purely symbolic terms. Considering all the possibilities – working out the consequences for each hypothesis and confirming or denying these consequences – is the essence of formal operational thought.
- 30. Critique ofpiaget’s theory Piaget underestimated the abilities of infants and preschool children. Object permanence Other experiments using Piaget’s conservation tasks have also yielded evidence that children’s mental capacities develop earlier than he thought Other research has identified more factors that can influence the development of concrete operational thought
- 31. Aptitude An aptitudeis a component of a competency to do a certain kind of work at a certain level, which can also be considered "talent“. It is an innate inborn ability or capacity to learn to do a certain kind of work The innate nature of aptitude is in contrast to achievement, which represents knowledge or ability that is gained through learning. Scholastic aptitude – To predict success in academic training. SAT (scholastic aptitude test), GRE (Graduate Record Examination) are few examples of tests. There are also non cognitive abilities like physical and perceptual skills.
- 32. General LearningAbility Verbal Aptitude Numerical Aptitude Form Perception Clerical checking, also called graphoria Inductive reasoning aptitude, also called differentiation or inductive learning ability Finger dexterity aptitude Number series aptitude Ideaphoria also called, creative imagination Creativity, also called remote association Language learning aptitude Mechanical comprehension Spatial reasoning, also called spacial visualization, space visualization or structural visualization Symbolic reasoning aptitude, also called analytical reasoning Visual memory Visual pursuit, also called line tracing
- 33. Achievement An achievementtest is a test of developed skill or knowledge. The most common type of achievement test is a standardized test developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually through planned instruction, such as training or classroom instruction.
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