2. Unit 1: The Scientific Study of Psychology
Psychology in historical perspective.
Perspectives and subfields in psychology.
The scientific method.
Ethics in psychology
4. The scientific study of mental processes
and behavior and how these are affected by
internal processes and the environment.
5. The ABC of Psychology:
A: Affect
B: Behavior
C: Cognitive
6.
7. Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt started the psychological laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany in 1879
He and his student Edward Titchner introduced
structuralism.
Structuralism is a theory of consciousness that seeks to
analyze the elements of mental experiences, such as
sensations, mental images, and feelings, and how these
elements combine to form more complex experiences
8. Mind and consciousness
Titchener believed that he could understand reasoning and the structure of the mind if he
could define and categorize the basic components of mind and the rules by which the
components interacted.
Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious though and feelings.
In psychology, the process of introspection relies on the observation of one's mental state.
He conducted experiments by placing objects of a persons hand and telling them to
describe what they were experiencing
9. Functionalism
Functionalism emerged as a response to structuralism.
William James was the founder of American Psychology as well as
functionalism
Functionalism believes that the function is more important than the
structure.
William James is as known for his James Lange theory of emotion.
Functional psychology or functionalism refers to a psychological school of
thought that was a direct outgrowth of Darwinian thinking which focuses
attention on the utility and purpose of behavior that has been modified
over years of human existence.
10. Functionalism
Functional psychology or functionalism refers to a psychological school of thought
that was a direct outgrowth of Darwinian thinking which focuses attention on the
utility and purpose of behavior that has been modified over years of human
existence.
Functionalism is a theory about the nature of mental states. According to
functionalists, mental states are identified by what they do rather than by what
they are made of. Functionalism is the most familiar and accepted by cognitive
scientist.
11. Gestalt Psychology
∗ Gestalt translates to “pattern” or “organized whole”.
∗ Demonstrated that learning is a accomplished by insight, not by
mechanical repetition.
∗ Founders included:
∗ Wertheimer (1880-1943),
∗ Koffka (1886-1941), and
∗ Kohler (1887-1967).
14. Psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis, method of treating mental disorders, shaped by
psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes unconscious mental
processes and is sometimes described as “depth psychology.”
The psychoanalytic movement originated in the clinical observations
and formulations of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, who
coined the term psychoanalysis.
During the 1890s, Freud worked with Austrian physician and
physiologist Josef Breuer in studies of neurotic patients
under hypnosis.
Freud and Breuer observed that, when the sources of patients’ ideas
and impulses were brought into consciousness during the hypnotic
state, the patients showed improvement.
15. Psychoanalysis.
It is built on the foundational idea that your behavior is
determined by experiences from your past that are lodged in
your unconscious.
Four aspects jointly determine the very essence of psychoanalytic
technique: interpretation, transference analysis, technical
neutrality, and countertransference analysis.
Important theories:
Id-Ego-SuperEgo.
Defense mechanisms.
Levels of Consciousness
Psychosexual Development
Dream analysis
19. Defense Mechanisms.
It refers to unconscious tactics used by individuals to protect
themselves from troubling thoughts or feelings.
In other words, defense mechanisms are practices that people use to
separate themselves from unpleasant events, actions, or thoughts
and unwanted feelings, such as guilt or shame.
While these mechanisms are not genetically harmful as they enable
individuals to navigate their painful experiences or channel their
energy more productively, they may become an issue when applied
too frequently or for longer periods.
20.
21. Oral Stage: birth to 18 months
Anal Stage: 18 months to 3 years
Phallic stage: 3 years to 6 years
Latency stage: 6 years to 12 years
Genital Stage: 12 years and above.
22. Techniques used in Psychoanalysis
Free Association
Slips of tongue
Dream analysis: Psychoanalytic dream interpretation
is the process of explaining the meaning of the
way the unconscious thoughts and emotions are
processed in the mind during sleep.
Freud said that, "The interpretation of dreams is
the royal road to a knowledge of the
unconscious activities of the mind." He meant
that because dreams are such an unconscious
activity they give an almost direct insight into the
workings of the unconscious mind.
23. Behaviorism
Anything can be learned and unlearned.
Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are
acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction
with the environment
There are a few ways how behaviorism explains learning:
1. Classical conditioning- Ivan Pavlov
2. Operant or instrumental conditioning- B.F. Skinner
3. Imitation learning- Albert Bandura
4. Vicarious learning- Albert Bandura
5. Learning by Insight- Wolfgang Kohler.
6. Latent Learning- Edward Tolman
25. Operant or instrumental conditioning –Learning
by rewards and punishments.
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) https://youtu.be/BR-eMMCp7tg
o Positive Reinforcement
o Negative Reinforcement
o Punishment type 1
o Punishment type 2
• https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=H6LEcM0E0io
• https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=BB7AIrt06ck
26. Attention:
paying attention to
the model is a
condition of learning
Retention:
Remembering what the
model did
Reproduction:
People must have
the capacity for imitating
Motivation:
People must be motivated
to imitate
(importance of model or
reward)
The model is the
subject being
observed
SocialCognitivetheory
Or
SocialLearningtheory
or
Imitationlearning
Learningby observing.
29. Learning by insight
The German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler (1925) carefully observed what happened when he
presented chimpanzees with a problem that was not easy for them to solve, such as placing
food in an area that was too high in the cage to be reached. He found that the chimps first
engaged in trial-and-error attempts at solving the problem, but when these failed they seemed
to stop and contemplate for a while. Then, after this period of contemplation, they would
suddenly seem to know how to solve the problem, for instance by using a stick to knock the
food down or by standing on a chair to reach it.
Köhler argued that it was this flash of insight, not the prior trial-and-error approaches, which
were so important for conditioning theories, that allowed the animals to solve the problem.
30. Latent Learning
Edward Tolman (Tolman & Honzik, 1930) studied the behavior of three groups of rats that were
learning to navigate through mazes.
Latent learning refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is
motivation to do so
Tolman argued that the rats had formed a “cognitive map” of the maze but did not
demonstrate this knowledge until they received reinforcement
31. Behaviourism vs Cognitive Model
Behaviourism (external behaviour)
INPUT BLACK BOX OUTPUT
Cognitive Model (internal behaviour)
INPUT MEDIATIONAL PROCESS/MENTAL
EVENT OUTPUT
32. Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology dedicated to
studying how people think.
These include perception, human learning, attention, categorization,
problem solving, decision–making, information processing and retrieval,
short and long-term memory and forgetting, sensory encoding, motor
control, psycholinguistics, and reading.
In cognitive learning theories, learning is described in terms of
information processing.
Dual Coding Theory.
Cognitive Load Theory.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning _ Richard Mayer
the use of multiple simultaneous techniques in instructional message
design, such as combining narration and visuals in a presentation.
1) Dual coding, 2) limited working memory capacity, and 3) the
need to maximize cognitive resources for learning are fundamental
principles.
33. Humanistic Psychology.
1. Gestalt Psychology
2. Person centered Counseling – Carl rogers
3. Existential Psychology:
Abraham Maslow- Hierarchy Needs
Victor Frankl –Logotherapy was developed by neurologist and
psychiatrist Viktor Frankl and is based on the premise that the
primary motivational force of an individual is to find a
meaning in life
Rollo May: introduced existentialism to American
psychologists. May determined that human beings fear death
because we cannot comprehend our own lack of existence.
However, May believed that facing these feelings of anxiety and
fear was a necessary experience if personal growth and
meaning were to be achieved in life.
34. Humanistic Psychology.
Congruence: Congruence is the most important attribute, according to Rogers. This implies
that the therapist is real and/or genuine, open, integrated and authentic during their
interactions with the client.
Authenticity or Genuineness in therapy means that the therapist is his actual self during
his encounter with his client. Without facade, he openly has the feelings and attitudes that
are flowing in him at the moment.
Real self – Ideal Self: Rogers divided the self into two categories; ideal and real self. The ideal
self is the person you would like to be and the real self is what you really are. In the real
world, a person's ideal self is not consistent with what happens in life with a person.
Empathy: Rogers suggested that empathy is the ability to understand another person's
experience in the world, as if you were that person, without ever losing the “as if” sense.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Unconditional positive regard is defined by humanistic
psychologists to mean expressing empathy, support, and acceptance to someone,
regardless of what they say or do.
39. Others therapies in treatment.
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprogramming (EMDR):What are the 8 steps of EMDR?
EMDR is an eight-phase treatment method. History taking, client preparation, assessment,
desensitization, installation, body scan, closure and reevaluation of treatment effect
NeuroLinguistic Programming (NLP)
Hypnotherapy
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): applying a series of short magnetic pulses
to stimulate nerve cells in areas of brain known to be associated with major depression.
Creative therapies: Play therapy, Art therapy, dance and movement therapy
42. Definitions
• Hypothesis—A testable prediction of the outcome of the experiment
or research
• Null Hypothesis - the statement that the independent variable will
have no effect on the dependent variable.
– Rather than trying to "prove" their hypothesis that something will happen,
social scientists actually try to disprove the null hypothesis – that something
will NOT happen
– We assume the null hypothesis is correct (that nothing is going to happen)
until we can encounter scientific evidence to reject it.
– Helps to avoid confirmation bias
• Variables—factors that change in ways that can be observed,
measured, and verified
• Operational definition—precise description of how the variables will
be measured
44. cont.
Variable: is any characteristic that is objectively registered and quantified. Ex. The hours of sleep.
Construct: is a theoretically defined variable. Ex. Anger and Aggression, Lethargy, Anxiety etc.
Operationalisation: of a construct means expressing it in terms of observable behaviour. Ex. the
level of cortisol in bloodstream.
46. Variables used in Experiment
Independent Variable (IV)
Dependent Variable (DV)
Controlled variables
Confounding variables
Experimental group (EG)
Control group (CG)
IV
Psychothera
py
DV
Depression
Confounding
Variables
Client’s personality
Therapy approach
➢ So an experiment study is in which we see the effect of IV on DV.
➢ Experimental studies establish cause and effect.
47.
48. Confounding Variables
• Variables, other than the independent
variable, which could inadvertently
influence the dependent variable
• “Outside factors” that could have caused
your results.
• Need to be controlled/eliminated in order
to draw a true, cause-effect relationship in
the experiment.
• Many confounding variables can be
eliminated through random assignment.
49. Confounding Variables:
Environmental Differences
• Any differences in the experiment’s conditions
– between the experimental and control groups
• Differences include temperature, lighting, noise
levels, distractions, etc.
• Ideally, there should be a minimum of
environmental differences between the two
groups.
50. Confounding Variables:
Expectation Effects
(Participant/Researcher Bias)
• Any changes in an experiment’s results
due to the subject or researcher
anticipating certain outcomes to the
experiment
• Change in DV produced by subject’s
expectancy that change should happen
• Researcher favoring one group over another
51. Sources of Bias
• Demand characteristics—subtle cues or signals by the
researcher that communicate type of responses that is
expected.
– Form of Researcher Bias
– Also helps to guard against the Clever Hans Effect
• Hawthorne Effect (participant bias) - refers to a change
in behavior of the subject because they have a great deal
of attention focused on them.
– Usually a spurt or elevation in performance or physical
phenomenon is measured.
52. Eliminating Bias:
Single Blind Procedure
• An experimental procedure where the research participants
are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the
experiment
53. Eliminating Bias:
Double Blind Procedure
• Technique in which neither the experimenter nor participant
is aware of the group to which participant is assigned
57. Dependent/ Repeated Measures design
You have one group of participants that receives each condition of an
experiment
The goal is to compare conditions rather than groups of participants.
Condition
1
Group
A
Conditio
n 2
Results
recorded
Results
recorded
58. Dependent/ Repeated Measures design
Strengths Limitations
1. Participant variables are
controlled.
2. Less participants are needed.
1. Order effects - counterbalancing.
2. Demand Characteristics-
expectancy effect, screw you effect.
3. Confounding variable
59. Independent measures design
Members of the sample are randomly allocated to one condition of the
experiment
Here groups are compared and not the condition.
Independent
variable
Group A
Group B
Dependen
t Variable
60. Independent groups design
Strengths Limitations
1. Order effects are controlled.
2. Demand characteristics are less
likely.
3. Same material can be used.
1. Participant variables are
controlled.
2. More participants are needed
As you can see, the strengths of one design mirror the limitations of the other. Ideally, when
researching a psychological question, researchers would use both designs.
63. Sampling, Sample and Population
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the
population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of
the whole population.
In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken
from a larger population for measurement. The sample should be representative
of the population
A population is the entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn.
64. Sampling
Probabilistic Non Probabilistic
1. Probability sampling is a
sampling technique, in which
the subjects of the population
get an equal opportunity to be
selected as a representative
sample.
1. Unbiased
1. Objective
1. Nonprobability sampling is a
method of sampling wherein, it
is not known that which
individual from the population
will be selected as a sample.
1. Biased
1. Subjective
67. Lens of evaluation
Validity: Is the study researching what it aims to research? What is the accuracy of the findings?
Internal
External
Construct
Image source: Oxford IBDP Psychology Course Companion
68. Ecological
Validity
the representativeness of
the testing situation
Mundane Realism
Other settings or
situation
generalizability of the study to
other settings or situations
outside of the laboratory
What is the relationship between internal validity and
ecological validity?
➢ Inverse
✔️
69. Reliability
It refers to the consistency of the
results when the study is replicated.
Image Source: https://psychologenie.com/concepts-of-reliability-validity-
explained-with-examples
highly controlled.
High
Internal
validity
High
Ecological
Validity
Low
Ecological
Validity
Low Internal
validity
Less controlled.
71. Ethical considerations in conducting the study
Informed consent
Protection from harm
Anonymity and confidentiality
Withdrawal from participation
Deception
Debriefing
72. Ethical considerations in reporting the results
Data fabrication
Plagiarism
Publication credit
Sharing data for verification
Social implications of reporting scientific results
Handling sensitive personal information
Handling of information obtained in genetic research
Handling of information related to mental disorders
