The document discusses infection prevention and control, including standard precautions and personal protective equipment. It defines infection, outlines the chain of infection and ways to break it, and describes various infection prevention strategies like hand hygiene, proper waste disposal, and use of masks, gloves, and other protective gear. Standard precautions aim to prevent transmission of pathogens and include practices like hand washing, gloving, gowning, and use of protective eyewear when exposed to bodily fluids.
Hospital acquired infections: The different common sources of infection, their routes of spread and the growing antimicrobial resistance. Also includes a discussion on hospital Infection prevention and control guidelines and the universal and standard precautions.
Hand washing, also known as hand hygiene, is the act of cleaning hands for the purpose of removing soil, dirt, and microorganisms. If water and soap is not available, hands can be cleaned with ash instead. Medical hand hygiene refers to hygiene practices related to medical procedures.
The Ebola epidemic which has no existing cure warrants a unique approach from medicine; barrier nursing which emphasises control and prevention of further infection. For now, this method should be considered to gain control over the outbreak.
Hospital acquired infections: The different common sources of infection, their routes of spread and the growing antimicrobial resistance. Also includes a discussion on hospital Infection prevention and control guidelines and the universal and standard precautions.
Hand washing, also known as hand hygiene, is the act of cleaning hands for the purpose of removing soil, dirt, and microorganisms. If water and soap is not available, hands can be cleaned with ash instead. Medical hand hygiene refers to hygiene practices related to medical procedures.
The Ebola epidemic which has no existing cure warrants a unique approach from medicine; barrier nursing which emphasises control and prevention of further infection. For now, this method should be considered to gain control over the outbreak.
The nursing technique by which a patient with an infectious disease is prevented from infecting other people is called barrier nursing.Hand hygiene is the simplest, most effective measure for infection control.Contact Precautions
Airborne Precautions
Droplet Precautions
Three more elements have been added to standard precautions. They are:
4.1 Respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette
4.2 Safe injection practices
4.3Use of masks for insertion of catheters or injection into spinal or epidural areas
Surgical Hand Washing
By Josfeena Bashir
Lecturer, BGSBU, Jammu
Introduction
During the 19th century, surgical hand preparation consisted of washing the hands with antimicrobial soap and warm water, frequently with the use of a brush.
Definition
Hand washing is important in every setting, including hospital. It is an effective infection control measures, as it prevent spread of micro organisms. For routine client care, the CDC recommends a vigorous hand washing under a stream of water for at least 10 seconds using soap.
Purpose
To remove transient and resident bacteria from fingers, hand and forearms.
To prevent the risk of transmission of infection to patients.
To reduce the risk of transmission of infection organisms to oneself.
To prevent cross infection among clients.
Equipments/ Articles Used For Hand Washing
Soap in a soap dish
Bacteriocidal or antimicrobial soap.
Surgical scrub brush
Running water
Towel/ sterile towels
Surgical hand washingSteps of procedure
Done mask, hair cover and booties, if required
Perform 5 to 10 minute surgical scrub using counted brush stroke method.
Remove rings, chipped nail polish and watch.
Contd….
Wet hands and arm from elbows to fingerprints under flowing water (use sink with side or foot pedal).
Place soap, preferably antimicrobial/ bacteriostatic, on hands and rub vigorously for 15 to 30 seconds; use scrub brush gently
Contd….
Using circular motion, scrub all skin areas, joints, fingernails, between finger and so forth (on all sides and 2 inches above elbows); slide ring, if present, up and down while rubbing fingers.
Continue scrub for 5 to 10 min or per agency policy.
Contd…
Rinse hands from fingers to elbow under flow of water.
Repeat soaping, rubbing and rinsing until hands and arms are clean.
Pat hands dry with sterile towel, moving from fingers to wrist.
Role of nurses in infection control dr.rs 07 04-2016SOMESHWARAN R
Role of nurses in infection control Universal safety precautions Hand washing Needle stick injury Post exposure prophylaxis MBBS UG STUDENTS MEDICINE CLASS THEORY PPT Power point
Biomedical waste
‘Bio-medical waste’ means any solid and/or liquid waste including its container and any intermediate product, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research pertaining thereto or in the production or testing thereof.
Standard precautions are meant to reduce the risk of transmission of blood borne and other pathogens from both recognized and unrecognized sources.
They are the basic level of infection control precautions which are to be used, as a minimum, in the care of all patients.
Standard safety precautions are the basic infection prevention and control measures necessary to reduce the risk of transmission of infectious agent from both unrecognized and unrecognized sources of infection.
The elements of Standard Precautions include:
Hand hygiene.
Use of gloves and other barriers (e.g., mask, eye protection, face shield, gown).
Handling of patient care equipment and linen.
Environmental control.
Prevention of injury from sharps devices, and patient placement.
Respiratory hygiene and cough etiquette
Pathogenic microorganisms proliferate and invade bodily tissue, causing tissue harm and disease.
The invasion and multiplication of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites those are not normally present within the body.
An infection may cause no symptoms and be subclinical, or it may cause symptoms and be clinically apparent.
An infection may remain localized, or it may spread through the blood or lymphatic vessels to become systemic (body wide).
Microorganisms that live naturally in the body are not considered infections.
For example, bacteria that normally live within the mouth and intestine are not infections.
Infection prevention policies and practices are used in hospitals and other health care facilities to reduce the spread of infections.
The nursing technique by which a patient with an infectious disease is prevented from infecting other people is called barrier nursing.Hand hygiene is the simplest, most effective measure for infection control.Contact Precautions
Airborne Precautions
Droplet Precautions
Three more elements have been added to standard precautions. They are:
4.1 Respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette
4.2 Safe injection practices
4.3Use of masks for insertion of catheters or injection into spinal or epidural areas
Surgical Hand Washing
By Josfeena Bashir
Lecturer, BGSBU, Jammu
Introduction
During the 19th century, surgical hand preparation consisted of washing the hands with antimicrobial soap and warm water, frequently with the use of a brush.
Definition
Hand washing is important in every setting, including hospital. It is an effective infection control measures, as it prevent spread of micro organisms. For routine client care, the CDC recommends a vigorous hand washing under a stream of water for at least 10 seconds using soap.
Purpose
To remove transient and resident bacteria from fingers, hand and forearms.
To prevent the risk of transmission of infection to patients.
To reduce the risk of transmission of infection organisms to oneself.
To prevent cross infection among clients.
Equipments/ Articles Used For Hand Washing
Soap in a soap dish
Bacteriocidal or antimicrobial soap.
Surgical scrub brush
Running water
Towel/ sterile towels
Surgical hand washingSteps of procedure
Done mask, hair cover and booties, if required
Perform 5 to 10 minute surgical scrub using counted brush stroke method.
Remove rings, chipped nail polish and watch.
Contd….
Wet hands and arm from elbows to fingerprints under flowing water (use sink with side or foot pedal).
Place soap, preferably antimicrobial/ bacteriostatic, on hands and rub vigorously for 15 to 30 seconds; use scrub brush gently
Contd….
Using circular motion, scrub all skin areas, joints, fingernails, between finger and so forth (on all sides and 2 inches above elbows); slide ring, if present, up and down while rubbing fingers.
Continue scrub for 5 to 10 min or per agency policy.
Contd…
Rinse hands from fingers to elbow under flow of water.
Repeat soaping, rubbing and rinsing until hands and arms are clean.
Pat hands dry with sterile towel, moving from fingers to wrist.
Role of nurses in infection control dr.rs 07 04-2016SOMESHWARAN R
Role of nurses in infection control Universal safety precautions Hand washing Needle stick injury Post exposure prophylaxis MBBS UG STUDENTS MEDICINE CLASS THEORY PPT Power point
Biomedical waste
‘Bio-medical waste’ means any solid and/or liquid waste including its container and any intermediate product, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research pertaining thereto or in the production or testing thereof.
Standard precautions are meant to reduce the risk of transmission of blood borne and other pathogens from both recognized and unrecognized sources.
They are the basic level of infection control precautions which are to be used, as a minimum, in the care of all patients.
Standard safety precautions are the basic infection prevention and control measures necessary to reduce the risk of transmission of infectious agent from both unrecognized and unrecognized sources of infection.
The elements of Standard Precautions include:
Hand hygiene.
Use of gloves and other barriers (e.g., mask, eye protection, face shield, gown).
Handling of patient care equipment and linen.
Environmental control.
Prevention of injury from sharps devices, and patient placement.
Respiratory hygiene and cough etiquette
Pathogenic microorganisms proliferate and invade bodily tissue, causing tissue harm and disease.
The invasion and multiplication of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites those are not normally present within the body.
An infection may cause no symptoms and be subclinical, or it may cause symptoms and be clinically apparent.
An infection may remain localized, or it may spread through the blood or lymphatic vessels to become systemic (body wide).
Microorganisms that live naturally in the body are not considered infections.
For example, bacteria that normally live within the mouth and intestine are not infections.
Infection prevention policies and practices are used in hospitals and other health care facilities to reduce the spread of infections.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
3. Introduction:
Infection is one of the leading
causes of preventable death in
hospitals every year. The centre of
Disease Control and Prevention
estimated that there are
approximately 2 million preventable
infections in hospital every year,
leading to 90,000 unnecessary
deaths.
4. Regardless of the work area, preventing
the transmission of organism is concern
of all nurses. One way in which nurse
accomplishes this goal is by asepsis. A
large number of micro-organism live and
multiply on every surface.
5. Infection control addresses factors related to
the spread of infections within the
healthcare setting (whether patient-to-
patient, from patients to staff and from staff
to patients, or among-staff), including
prevention (via hand hygiene/hand washing,
cleaning/disinfection/sterilization,
vaccination, surveillance),
monitoring/investigation of demonstrated or
suspected spread of infection within a
particular health-care setting (surveillance
and outbreak investigation), and
management (interruption of outbreaks).
6. Definition of infection:
The invasion of bodily tissue by
pathogenic microorganisms that
proliferate, resulting in tissue
injury that can progress to
disease.
7. (The invasion and multiplication of
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and
parasites those are not normally present within
the body. An infection may cause no symptoms
and be subclinical, or it may cause symptoms and
be clinically apparent. An infection may remain
localized, or it may spread through the blood or
lymphatic vessels to become systemic (body
wide). Microorganisms that live naturally in the
body are not considered infections. For example,
bacteria that normally live within the mouth and
intestine are not infections.)
8. Infection prevention:
Infection prevention refers to policies and
procedures used to minimize the risk of
spreading infections, especially in
hospitals and human or animal health
care facilities.
9. Infectious diseases:
Infectious diseases kill more people
worldwide than any other single cause.
Infectious diseases are caused by germs.
Germs are tiny living things that are found
everywhere - in air, soil and water. Person
can get infected by touching, eating, drinking
or breathing something that contains a
germ.
10. Germs can also spread through animal
and insect bites, kissing and sexual
contact. Vaccines, proper hand washing
and medicines can help prevent
infections.
There are four main kinds of germs:
15. Types of infection:
Primary infection:
Initial infection with an organism to host
constitutes primary infection.
Secondary infection:
When in a host whose resistance is
lowered by pre-existing infection, a new
organism may set up a new infection.
16. Local infection:
Infection that is limited to a defined area or
single organ with symptoms that resemble
inflammation (redness, tenderness and swelling.)
Systemic infection:
Infection that spreads to whole body resulting
in a septicemia.
Acute infection:
It appears suddenly or lasts for a short time.
E.g. URI
17. Chronic infection:
May occur slowly over a long period
and may last months to years.
Iatrogenic infection:
Infection resulting due to therapeutic
and diagnostic procedures.
18. Nosocomial infection:
Also known as Hospital-acquired infection
(HAI) — is an infection that is contracted from the
environment or staff of a healthcare facility. It can
be spread in the hospital environment, nursing
home environment, rehabilitation facility, clinic,
or other clinical settings. Infection is spread to the
susceptible patient in the clinical setting by a
number of means. Health care staff can spread
infection, in addition to contaminated equipment,
bed linens, or air droplets. The infection can
originate from the outside environment, another
infected patient, staff that may be infected, or in
some cases, the source of the infection cannot be
determined.
19. Chain of infection:
The presence of a pathogen does not
mean that an infection will begin. In
order for infectious disease to spread,
several necessary steps must occur.
These steps are known as “chain of
infection”. An infection will develop
only if chain remains intact. These
links are;
21. Causative Agent - the microorganism
(for example bacteria, virus or fungi).
22. Reservoir (source) - a host which
allows the microorganism to live, and
possibly grow, and multiply. Humans,
animals and the environment can all
be reservoirs for microorganisms.
23. Portal of Exit - a path
for the microorganism
to escape from the
host. The blood,
respiratory tract, skin
and mucous
membranes,
genitourinary tract,
gastrointestinal tract,
and transplacental
route from mother to
her unborn infant are
some examples.
24. Mode of Transmission - since
microorganisms cannot travel on their own;
they require a vehicle to carry them to other
people and places.
Infectious diseases and even
certain contagious diseases spread through
the following agencies. Their ways of
spreading is also given along with these
agencies.
26. Portal of Entry - a path for the
microorganism to get into a new host,
similar to the portal of exit.
Susceptible Host - a person susceptible to
the microorganism
27. Who is at risk of infection?
Staff: service provide are at significant risk
for infection because they are exposed to
potentially infectious blood and other body
fluids on daily basis.
28. Clients: they are at risk of post procedural
infection when, e.g. service providers do not
wash hands between client and procedure,
when they do not adequately prepare client
for procedure and when used instruments
and other items are not cleaned and
processed correctly.
Community: it is also at risk of infection,
particularly from inappropriate disposal of
medical waste.
29. Breaking chain of infection:
As health professional, we cannot
provide health care services without
some exposure to potentially
infectious materials, but we can
prevent transmission in many cases.
The only way to prevent infection is to
break the chain of infection. The nurse
must follow certain principle and
procedures to prevent infection and
control its spread.
30. Breaking the chain 1 of
infection:
1. Rapid and accurate identification of
organism:
Routinely send blood cultures, urine
culture, skin swabs, throat swabs,
tracheal aspirate culture.
Send endotracheal tube tip, urinary
catheter tip and central line tip for
culture after removal.
31. 2. Control or elimination of infectious
agents including:
Proper cleaning by the water and
mechanical action with or without
detergents.
33. Breaking the chain 2 of
infection:
Measures to control or eliminate of reservoir
of infection.
Employee health:
Immunization of health personnel’s e.g.
hepatitis B vaccine
Regular checkup for early detection of any
communicable disease
Restriction from work of patient contact
when infected with communicable disease.
34. Environmental disease:
Cleaning with hospital approved clear
disinfectant, e.g. phenol
Through cleaning of bed and bedside
equipments before admitting new patient.
Separate mops should be used for cleaning
of unit. (Twice a day).
Damp dusting should be done.
Drains should be patent.
35. Handling of linen:
Keep bed sheets dry and clean.
Change sheets every day.
Do not shake blankets and linen.
Do not throw them on floor.
Soiled linen counting should be done in
separate place.
36. Pest control:
Measures to be taken to avoid their entry
into unit. E.g. proper cleaning, sealing and
draining.
Patient’s diet should be kept in covered
containers.
Keep fly trappers on each bedside of
patient.
Pesticide spray should be used weekly.
37. Visitors control:
Traffic should be restricted except for doctor,
nurse and supportive staff.
Allow only one attendant (3-4 hours).
Keep the doors and windows closed.
Mobile phones should not be allowed inside
the area.
Machines (X-rays, echo machines,
ultrasound machine) from outside should be
cleaned with spirit before their use.
38. Breaking the chain 3 of
infection:
Portal of exit:
Practice aseptic precaution.
Avoid talking directly into the client’s mouth to
prevent the droplet infection.
Wearing of mask is compulsory if the nurse is
infected or she is dealing with the patients who
are infected.
Careful handling of waste like urine, faeces,
emesis and blood is important.
Disposable gloves should be worn to prevent
direct contact with wastes or infected materials.
39. Breaking the chain 4 of
infection:
Mode of transmission:
Contact Precautions;
Single patient room.
Staff to perform hand hygiene, put on
gown/apron and gloves prior to entering
patient room and when anticipating contact
with the patient or their surroundings is.
Remove gown/apron and gloves and
perform hand hygiene after leaving room.
Clean and disinfect non-disposable
equipment and items when removed from
patient room.
40. Droplet Precautions;
Single patient room.
Staff to put on surgical mask when entering
room and remove and dispose of mask after
leaving room and perform hand hygiene.
Instruct patient about respiratory hygiene
and cough etiquette.
Limit patient movement outside the room to
medically-necessary purposes.
Patient to put on a surgical mask when
leaving room.
41. Airborne Precautions;
Single negatively pressured room.
Door to remain closed.
Staff to put on N95/P2 mask when
entering patient room and remove and
dispose of mask and perform hand
hygiene after leaving room.
Instruct patient about respiratory hygiene
and cough etiquette.
Patient to put on surgical mask when
leaving room.
42. Breaking the chain 5 of
infection:
Portal of entry:
Maintain integrity of skin and mucous
membrane.
Prepare position of tubing, etc. may
prevent injuries and skin breakdown.
Turning and positioning of debilitated
clients.
43. Ensure the personal hygiene of client
regularly.
Proper disposal of contaminated syringe
and needles.
Proper handling of catheters and
drainage set etc. care should be taken
while collecting and handling specimen.
44. Breaking the chain 6 of
infection:
Protecting susceptible host:
Protecting the normal defense mechanism
by,
Regular oral hygiene.
Maintaining adequate intake.
Encouraging deep breathing exercise.
Encouraging proper immunization of
children and adult client.
45. Maintaining healing process:
Promotion of intake of well-balanced diet
containing essential protein, vitamins, fats
and carbohydrates.
Institution measures to improve appetite of
patient.
Helping the client to identify methods to
relieve stress.
47. Introduction:
Universal precautions refers to the practice, in
medicine of avoiding contact with patients' bodily
fluids, by means of the wearing of nonporous
articles such as medical gloves, goggles, and face
shields. The practice was introduced in 1985–88. In
1987, the practice of universal precautions was
adjusted by a set of rules known as body substance
isolation. In 1996, both practices were replaced by
the latest approach known as standard precautions.
48. Under universal precautions all patients
were considered to be possible carriers of
blood-borne pathogens.
49. Pathogens fall into two broad categories,
blood borne (carried in the body fluids) and
airborne.
Standard precaution contains following
things;
Hand washing
Gloving
Gowning
Mask/ protective eye wear/ cap
Shoe cover
50. Definition:
Standard precaution is defined as, “a set
of precautionary measures including good
hand hygiene practices and use of
protective barriers during routine patient
care carried out by health care workers
(HCW)”.
51. Hand washing:
Hand washing or hand hygiene is the act
of cleaning one's hands with or without
the use of water or another liquid, or with
the use of soap for the purpose of
removing soil, dirt, and/or
microorganisms.
54. Masks:
When mask is correctly applied, it will
fit snugly and securely over the nose
and mouth.
To protect staff from inhalation of
infectious aerosols or droplets, smoke
or plume or other airborne hazards.
To prevent the spread of micro-
organisms from the nasopharynx of
staff of the patient to others who are
susceptible.
55. Types of masks:
Surgical Mask: Used in wards,
departments or operating theatres.
56. N95 Particulate Mask: Used when caring
for patients with diagnosed or suspected
airborne infectious diseases.
57. Gloving:
Gloves must be available and
accessible in a range of sizes in all
patient care areas.
Wearing gloves reduces
contamination of hands and minimizes
the risk that a health care worker will
become infected after contact with a
patient’s blood or body substance.
Wearing gloves reduces the likelihood
that staff will transmit micro-organisms
for their hands to patients.
58. The type of glove used will depend on
the task involved:
Non sterile gloves: Non sterile nitrile gloves
are suitable for most situations when contact
with any blood or body substance, mucous
membranes or non-intact skin is anticipated.
Sterile gloves: Sterile latex gloves shall be
worn for surgical procedures where asepsis
must be maintained. Staff involved with
surgical procedures should double-glove for
added protection
59. Eye/ Face Protection:
Eye/face protection shall be worn in
any situation when splash or splatter
with blood or body substance to the
mucous membrane of the mouth, nose
and or eyes in likely.
62. Types of protective
clothing:
Plastic aprons: In
general, disposable
plastic aprons are
sufficient to provide
protection from
contamination
Fluid Resistant Gown:
Long sleeved,
disposable fluid
resistant gowns should
be used for contact
isolation or where there
is an elevated risk of
contamination
64. In health care settings, injuries form
needle or other sharp instruments are
the number of one of the cause of the
occupational exposure to blood born
infections.
65. Sharps:
The term sharp refers to any sharp
instruments or object used in delivery
of health care services, including
hypodermic needles, suture needles,
scalpel blades, sharp instruments, IV
catheters and razor blades.
66. Prevention of injuries from
sharps:
Use the “handles-free” techniques
when passing sharps during clinical
procedures.
Do not bend, break, or cut hypodermic
needle before disposal.
Do not recap the needles.
Disposal of hypodermic needles and
other sharps properly.
67. Safe-passing of sharp
instruments:
Uncapped or otherwise
unprotected sharps
should never be passed
directly from one person
to another. In the
operating theater or
procedure room, pass
sharps instruments in
such a way that the
surgeon and assistant
are never touching the
item at the same time.
This way of passing
sharps is known as the
“hands-free” techniques:
68. The assistant
places the
instrument in a
sterile kidney basin
or in designated
“safe zone” in sterile
field.
The service
provider picks up
the instrument, uses
it, and returns it to
the basin or safe.
69. Managing injuries and
exposure:
Studies have shown that cleaning a
wound with an antiseptic or squeezing it
does not reduce the risk of infection. If
you are accidently exposed to blood or
other body fluids, either by needle stick,
an injury from another sharp object, and
a splash of fluid:
Wash the needle stick injury site or cut
with soap and running water.
Flush splashes to the nose, mouth or
skin with water.
Irrigate splashes to the eyes with water
or saline.
70. Post exposure prophylaxis:
Post exposure prophylaxis with drugs or
other therapy can reduce the risk of
transmission of some blood borne pathogens.
For hepatitis B: hepatitis B immune globulin
and hepatitis B vaccine can reduce the risk of
infection after exposure to blood or other
body fluids containing the hepatitis B virus.
For hepatitis C: there is no post exposure
prophylaxis available for hepatitis C. Neither
immune globulin nor antiviral drugs shown to
reduce the risk of hepatitis C transmission.
71. Safe disposal of sharps:
Do not recap, bend or break needle
before disposal, and do not remove
the needle from the syringe by hand.
Dispose of needles and syringe
immediately after use in a puncture
resistant sharp disposal container.
72. Sharps disposal containers:
Puncture resistant sharp disposal
containers should be conveniently
located in any area where sharp
objects are frequently used (such as
injection rooms, treatment room,
operating theater, labor and
laboratories.)
74. Introduction:
Standard precaution (SP) is the core
concept for the prevention of HIV
transmission in all health care
settings.
SP encompasses precautions in the
handling of blood, all body fluids,
secretions and excretions; and
avoidance of contamination of non-
intact skin and mucous membrane.
75. The setting of infection control
for the prevention of HIV can be;
In-patient.
out-patient clinics and Accident and
Emergency Departments,
Special settings like the dental clinics,
surgical theatres.
76. The scope of infection control for HIV
prevention is vast in health care settings.
Apart from SP, there are the following
dimensions:
Environmental infection control practices.
Occupational safety and health advice.
Post exposure management of exposed
HCW.
“Prevention of Transmission of HIV in
Health Care Settings” edited by the
Scientific Committee of Advisory Council
on AIDS in 1995.
77. Principles:
In the context of infection control,
HIV is treated as a blood borne
pathogen. The recommended
practices therefore apply to HIV as
much as they apply to the control of
other blood borne infections in
health care settings.
SP is the core practice
recommended for HCW in all
settings in relation to the prevention
of blood borne infections including
HIV and tuberculosis.
78. Risk assessment is the most vital tool in
the management of HCW after exposure
to HIV. The provision of post exposure
prophylaxis, including antiretroviral
therapy, should follow thorough risk
assessment and counseling tailored to
the need of the injured.
A surveillance system should be in place
to monitor the potential risk of HIV
transmission in health care settings. This
would involve primarily the reporting of
needle stick injury.
Training and education of HCW on
infection control practices.
79. Guidelines:
Originally defined by CDC in 1985,
applied only to blood and body fluids that
have been implicated in the transmission
of blood borne infections. Body fluids
with an unknown risk of HIV transmission
(amniotic, cerebrospinal, pericardial,
peritoneal, pleural and synovial fluids)
and body fluids that contaminated with
blood. However, it did not apply to
faeces, nasal secretions, sputum, sweat,
urine or vomitus which were later
included under the recommendations of
Body Substance Isolation.
80. Hand washing: Hands must be
washed before and after patient
contact. Hands must be washed
immediately after touching blood, body
fluids and removal of gloves. Plain
soap and water are used for routine
hand washing.
81. Protective barriers: Disposable gloves
must be worn when there is a direct
contact or possibility of contact with
blood, body fluids, mucous membrane
and non-intact skin of all patients.
Gloves should preferably be changed
after patient contact and before
administering care to another patient.
Gloves must be changed whenever
they are torn and when a needle-stick
or other injury occurs and when they
are visibly dirty with blood.
82. Mask, eye protection or face shield,
and gown must be worn as
appropriate during procedures and
patient care activity that may result in
splashing of blood and body fluids.
Sharps handling Precautions should
be taken to prevent injuries.
83. Patient-care equipment handling:
Patient-care equipment soiled with
blood, body fluids, secretions, and
excretions should be handled in a
manner that prevents skin and
mucous membrane exposures.
Reusable equipment should not be
used for the care of another patient
until it has been properly cleaned and
reprocessed. Single-use items should
be properly discarded.
84. Used linen soiled with blood, body fluids,
secretions, and excretions should be
handled in a manner that prevents skin
and mucous membrane exposure.
Patient placement: Patient who
contaminates the environment should be
placed in a private room.
The environment is a potential source of
health-care-associated blood borne
infections. Decontamination of the
environment and equipment is an
essential infection control practice in
every setting. This fundamentally
consists of disinfection, sterilization and
handling of medical wastes.
85. All contaminated equipment should be
disinfected according to established
disinfectant policy formulated by local
hospitals (Queen Mary Hospital.
Infection Control Manual, November
1999).
Heating is an effective mean of
disinfection. HIV is inactivated by
moist heat at 60oC in 30 minutes.
Chemical disinfectant like sodium
hypochlorite (household bleach), 2%
glutaraldehyde and ortho-
phthalaldehyde (OPA) can be used in
the disinfection of contaminated
86. Environment spilled with blood and
body fluids should be cleaned
immediately. The infected site should
be cleansed with 10,000 ppm
hypochlorite solution. Ordinary
environmental surface such as wall,
floor and other surface have not been
associated with transmission of HIV.
Common housekeeping procedures
are adequate for cleaning
environmental surface.
87. Medical wastes should be handled
according to established policy of the
institution. Articles contaminated with
infected material should be
appropriately discarded, bagged and
labeled before sent for
decontamination and processing.
Work Restriction and Occupational
Health Advice.
Immunization against HIV is currently
not available.
88. Post exposure prophylaxis:
Post exposure prophylaxis is
recommended when occupational
exposure to HIV occurs. The U.S.
Public Health Service (USPHS)
recommends the following guidelines:
Determine, if possible, the HIV status
of the exposure source patient to
guide the need for HIV PEP.
Start PEP medication regimens as
soon as possible after exposure (24
hours) and continue for 4-week
duration.
89. PEP medication regimens should
contain three or more antiretroviral
drugs for all occupational exposures to
HIV.
Expert consultation is recommended
for any occupational exposure to HIV
situation as defined by the USPHS.
Close follow-up should be provided,
including counseling, baseline and
follow-up HIV testing, and monitoring
for drug toxicity beginning 72 hours
after exposure.
90. If a fourth-generation combination of
HIV antigen-HIV antibody test is used
for follow-up HIV testing, testing may
be ended four months following
exposure. If a new testing platform is
not available, follow-up HIV testing is
to be concluded six months after
exposure.
93. Introduction:
Clients in health care setting may have
an increased risk of acquiring infection.
HAI results from delivery of health
services in the health care facility. A
hospital is one of the most likely places
for acquiring infection because it harbors
a high population of virulent strains of
micro-organism that may be resistant to
antibiotics. The intensive care unit is one
area in the hospital where that risks of
acquiring a HAI is especially high.
94. Definition:
A hospital-acquired infection is usually one
that first appears three days after a patient is
admitted to a hospital or other health care
facility. Infections acquired in a hospital are
also called Nosocomial infections.
For a HAI, the infection must occur:
Up to 48 hours after hospital admission.
Up to 3 days after discharge.
Up to 30 days after an operation.
In a healthcare facility when someone was
admitted for reasons other than the infection.
95. Sites and cause of HAI:
• Urinary tract:
• Surgical and traumatic wounds:
• Respiratory infection:
• Blood stream:
99. An infant has immature defense
against infection.
The young middle age adult has
refined defense against infection..
Defense against infection may
changes with aging. The immune
response, particularly cell mediated
immunity declines.
100. Nutritional status:
Reduction in intake of proteins and
other nutrients such as carbohydrates
and fats reduces the body’s defense
against infection and Impairs wound
healing.
101. Stress:
The body response to emotional or
physical stress by general adaptation
syndrome, if stress continued or
become intense, then elevated
cortisone level result in used
resistance to infection.
102. Hereditary:
Certain hereditary conditions impair an
individual’s response to infection.
For example gammaglobuinemia is
rare inherited or acquired
characterized by absence of serum
antibodies.
103. Disease process:
Client with disease of immune system
are of particular risk for infection.
Leukemia, AIDS, lymphoma and
aplastic anemia are conditions that
compromise a host by weakening
defenses against infectious
organisms.
Burn client have a very high
susceptibility to infection because of
damage to skin surface.
104. Medical therapy:
Some drugs and
medical therapies
compromise
immunity to infection.
Cyclosporine and
other
immunosuppressan
t drugs, clients
receiving
radiotherapy and
chemotherapy are
also risk for infection.
105. 2. Nursing diagnosis:
The following are example
of nursing diagnosis that
may apply;
Disturbed body image
Risk of infection
Risk for injury
Imbalanced nutrition
less than body
requirements
Risk for impaired skin
integrity
Impaired tissue integrity
106. 3. Planning:
Preventing
exposure to
infectious
organism.
Controlling or
reducing the
extent of infection.
Maintaining
resistance to
infection.
107. 4. Implementation:
Through practical thinking the nurse
may prevent infection from
developing, spreading by minimizing
the numbers and kinds of organism
transmitted to potential sites.
108. 5. Evaluation:
To evaluate whether your client has
achieved the expect outcome and has
remained free of infection.
Maintain high standard of medical and
surgical asepsis and constantly
monitor the client for sign in infection.
110. Introduction:
Hospital or health care waste is generally
named and popular as Bio Medical
Waste.
According to bio-medical waste
management and handling rule 1998 of
India:
Bio-medical waste means any
waste which is generated during the
diagnosis, treatment or immunization of
human being o animals or in research
activities.
111. Sources of bio-medical waste:
Hospital and health care centers:
Clinics/ office:
Medical research center and laboratories:
Animal’s institute:
Blood bank and collection centers/ donation
camp
Biotechnology institutes
112.
113.
114.
115. Disposal of biomedical waste
includes three stages:
Collection and segregation
Transportation and storage
Disposal techniques
116. DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES:
1. Chemical disinfection:
Solid waste must be disinfected before
they are sent for final disposal.
Chemical disinfection is most
appropriate method for to treat the
liquid waste such as blood, urine, and
stool or hospital sewage.
118. Autoclave (wet thermal treatment):
It is effective method of sterilization for
microbiology and biotechnology waste.
Hydroclave(dry thermal treatment):
In this method shredded infectious waste
is exposed to high temperature, high
pressure steam like autoclaving. It dries
80% liquid of waste and waste is
reduced to 20-30% in weight.
Adequately trained operators or
technicians are needed for its operation.
119. 3. Microwave irradiation:
This technique is also effective like
autoclave in sterilizing infected
disposable waste. Most of micro-
organism destroyed by action of
microwaves.
4. Incineration:
It is a high temperature dry oxidation
process that reduces organic,
incombustible matter. It also reduces
the volume and weight of waste.
120. 5. Inertization:
In this process cement and other
substance are mixed with waste
before disposal. Mixing of cement etc.
reduces risk of migrating toxic
substance into surface water or
ground water. After making
homogeneous mixture, cubes are
prepared at site, and then transported
to final disposable site.
121. 6. Landfill:
It is quite effective, provided practiced
appropriately a sanitary landfill
observing certain rues can be
acceptable choice for disposal of
biomedical waste, particularly in
developing countries like India
122.
123. Infection is one of the leading causes of
preventable death. Regardless of all work area,
preventing the transmission of organism is
concern of all nurses.
Hospital acquired infection are treat to population
health and are not going away any time soon. It
is responsibility of nurse to keep patient in their
care safe by modeling effective and frequent
hand washing practices and proper use of
personal protective equipment.
Biomedical wastes are one of the major causes
of infection in hospital settings. So its
responsibility of hospital authority along with
health team to collect, segregates, transport and
store and dispose it off to safeguard the people
from hospital acquired infection.