Immunotherapy
➢ Treatment to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune (defence) system to fight
against infection or disease.
➢ It is also sometimes called Biologic therapy or Biotherapy.
➢ Biological therapy is thus any form of treatment that uses the body’s natural abilities
that constitute the immune system to fight infection and disease or to protect the body
from some of the side effects of treatment e.g. – cancer.
Types of Immunotherapeutics
1. Monoclonal antibody
2. Cancer vaccines therapy
3. Immune checkpoint inhibitors
4. Non-specific Immunotherapies
5. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy
Humanized Antibody- They are antibodies from non-human species whose protein sequences have
been modified to increase their similarity to antibody variants produced naturally in humans.
➢The process of humanization is usually applied to monoclonal antibodies developed for administration
to humans. (e.g- antibodies developed as anti-cancer drugs)
Extrapolation of in vitro data to preclinical and.pptxARSHIKHANAM4
Extrapolation of in vitro data to preclinical.
the topic is included in m.pharmacy 1st sem syllabus. which is essential for the study and that include the details about how you deal with the preclinical data that will help to decide the NOEAL and LOEAL, the humane dose of the drug can be calculated and further formation is also done.
Assignment on Preclinical Screening of ImmunomodulatorsDeepak Kumar
Assignment on Preclinical screening of new substances for the pharmacological activity using in vivo, in vitro, and other possible animal alternative models
Extrapolation of in vitro data to preclinical and.pptxARSHIKHANAM4
Extrapolation of in vitro data to preclinical.
the topic is included in m.pharmacy 1st sem syllabus. which is essential for the study and that include the details about how you deal with the preclinical data that will help to decide the NOEAL and LOEAL, the humane dose of the drug can be calculated and further formation is also done.
Assignment on Preclinical Screening of ImmunomodulatorsDeepak Kumar
Assignment on Preclinical screening of new substances for the pharmacological activity using in vivo, in vitro, and other possible animal alternative models
genetic variations and its role in health/ pharmacologysrivani mandaloju
Here is the reference for the above topic. I have collected the maximum information that i got from the internet. If any one need the complete information comment here.
immunoassay of digoxin.pptx (analytical methods of immunoassay)NikitaBankoti2
Immunoassays are bioanalytical methods in which the quantitation of the analyte depends on the reaction of an antigen (analyte) and an antibody.
Principle - Immuno assay methods are based on a competitive binding between a fixed amount of labelled form of an analyte and available amount of unlabeled sample analyte for a limited amount of binding sites on a highly specific anti-analyte antibody.
Introduction to Screening Models Of Anti Cancer Drugs
Need for novel anti cancer drugs, In - vitro methods, In - vivo methods, Advantages and disadvantages
Presented by
T. Niranjan Reddy
Department of Pharmacology
General principle of immunoassay Theoretical basis and optimization of immun...Ashish Gadage
Unlock the mysteries of immunoassays with this comprehensive PowerPoint presentation. Delve into the fundamental principles that underpin immunoassay techniques, exploring the theoretical foundations and key concepts. From antigen-antibody interactions to signal amplification strategies, this presentation provides valuable insights into the world of immunoassay science.
Key Topics:
Basics of Immunoassay: Antigen-Antibody Interactions
Types of Immunoassays: ELISA, Western Blot, and More
Signal Detection and Amplification Techniques
Factors Affecting Assay Sensitivity and Specificity
Optimization Strategies for Enhanced Performance
Emerging Trends in Immunoassay Technology
Who Should View:
Designed for scientists, researchers, and students in the fields of immunology, biochemistry, and medical diagnostics. Whether you're new to immunoassays or seeking advanced insights, this presentation caters to a broad audience.
Presenter: Mr. Gadage Ashish Rambhau
(M Pharm Pharmacology)
Pravara Rural Education Society pravaranagar,Loni .
Introduction to Immunotherapeutics
Cell mediated & humoral immunity, Immunosuppressants, Immunostimulants
Presented by
G. Sai Swetha
Department of Pharmacology
genetic variations and its role in health/ pharmacologysrivani mandaloju
Here is the reference for the above topic. I have collected the maximum information that i got from the internet. If any one need the complete information comment here.
immunoassay of digoxin.pptx (analytical methods of immunoassay)NikitaBankoti2
Immunoassays are bioanalytical methods in which the quantitation of the analyte depends on the reaction of an antigen (analyte) and an antibody.
Principle - Immuno assay methods are based on a competitive binding between a fixed amount of labelled form of an analyte and available amount of unlabeled sample analyte for a limited amount of binding sites on a highly specific anti-analyte antibody.
Introduction to Screening Models Of Anti Cancer Drugs
Need for novel anti cancer drugs, In - vitro methods, In - vivo methods, Advantages and disadvantages
Presented by
T. Niranjan Reddy
Department of Pharmacology
General principle of immunoassay Theoretical basis and optimization of immun...Ashish Gadage
Unlock the mysteries of immunoassays with this comprehensive PowerPoint presentation. Delve into the fundamental principles that underpin immunoassay techniques, exploring the theoretical foundations and key concepts. From antigen-antibody interactions to signal amplification strategies, this presentation provides valuable insights into the world of immunoassay science.
Key Topics:
Basics of Immunoassay: Antigen-Antibody Interactions
Types of Immunoassays: ELISA, Western Blot, and More
Signal Detection and Amplification Techniques
Factors Affecting Assay Sensitivity and Specificity
Optimization Strategies for Enhanced Performance
Emerging Trends in Immunoassay Technology
Who Should View:
Designed for scientists, researchers, and students in the fields of immunology, biochemistry, and medical diagnostics. Whether you're new to immunoassays or seeking advanced insights, this presentation caters to a broad audience.
Presenter: Mr. Gadage Ashish Rambhau
(M Pharm Pharmacology)
Pravara Rural Education Society pravaranagar,Loni .
Introduction to Immunotherapeutics
Cell mediated & humoral immunity, Immunosuppressants, Immunostimulants
Presented by
G. Sai Swetha
Department of Pharmacology
immuno therapy is the treatment modality used to treat, cure the cancer, and kill the cancer tumor by increasing the self defense system to fight against cancer cell
Skin sensitisation, OECD Test guideline 406 .pptxNikitaBankoti2
Skin Sensitisation: ( allergic contact dermatitis) is an immunologically mediated cutaneous reaction to a substance. In the human, the responses may be characterised by pruritis, erythema, oedema, papules, vesicles or a combination of these. In other species the reactions may differ and only erythema and oedema may be seen.
Role Of Transgenic Animal In Target Validation-1.pptxNikitaBankoti2
A Transgenic animal is one that carries a foreign gene that has been deliberately inserted into its genome.
The foreign gene are inserted into the germ line of the animal, so it can be transmitted to the progeny.
Transgenic animals are animals that are genetically altered to have traits that mimic symptoms of specific human pathologies.
They provide genetic model of various human disease which are important in understanding disease and development of new target.
The identification of the carcinogenic properties of a chemical, resulting in an increased incidence of neoplasms, increased proportion of malignant neoplasms or a reduction in the time to appearance of neoplasms, compared with concurrent control groups.
The identification of target organ(s) of carcinogenicity.
The identification of the time to appearance of neoplasms.
Characterisation of the tumour dose-response relationship.
Real-time PCR is a technique used to monitor the progress of a PCR reaction in real-time.
At the same time, a relatively small amount of pcr product (dna, cdna or rna) can be quantified.
Real-time pcr is based on the detection of the fluorescence produced by a reporter molecule which increases, as the reaction proceeds.
Real-time pcr is also known as a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qpcr), which is a laboratory technique of molecular biology based on the polymerase chain reaction (pcr).
Qpcr is a powerful technique that allows exponential amplification of dna sequences.
A pcr reaction needs a pair of primers that are complementary to the sequence of interest. Primers are extended by the DNA polymerase.
Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, RT-PCR, is a type of PCR technique that enzymatically amplifies the RNA in vitro.
It is the only type of pcr that can amplify the rna.
It uses a reverse transcriptase enzyme in addition to the other basic components of the pcr.
First, the sample rna is converted to complementary dna (cdna) in reverse transcription, catalyzed by the reverse transcriptase enzyme. These cdna molecules are then used as a template for amplification in the PCR process.
Rt-pcr is used to analyze the mrna or micro rna and study gene expression.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2. Introduction
Immunity - The overall defence mechanism of an individual Organism against any
invading agent or pathogen is called immunity.
➢The study of immunity is called immunology.
➢When a foreign substance (antigen) is introduced into our body our body produces
antibodies against those antigen.
➢If our antibodies are able to eliminate the antigen then we are free from diseases. But,
when antibodies are not enough/able to eradicate the antigens, we suffer from a
disease.
➢Types of immunity – There are two types of immunity.
1. Natural immunity or innate immunity
2. Acquired immunity
2
3. Immunotherapy
➢ Treatment to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune (defence) system to fight
against infection or disease.
➢ It is also sometimes called Biologic therapyor Biotherapy.
➢ Biological therapy is thus any form of treatment that uses the body’s natural abilities
that constitute the immune system to fight infection and disease or to protect the body
from some of the side effects of treatment e.g. – cancer.
3
4. History
➢ William coley, MD, a New York surgeon, first noted that getting an infection after
surgery seemed to help some cancer patients.
➢ In the late 1800s, he began treating cancer patients by infecting them with certain kinds
of bacteria, which came to be known as Coley Toxins. (named after William coley)
➢ Coley toxin treatment- we injected Streptococcal organism into a cancer patients in
order to cause erysipelas(red patches on the skin) and stimulate the immune system.
➢ Although he had some success, his technique was overshadowed when other forms of
cancer treatment, such as radiation therapy came into use.
➢ Since then, doctors have learned a great deal about the immune system. This has lead
to research into how it can be used to treat cancer, using many different approaches.
➢In few last decades immunotherapy has become an important part of treating several
type of cancer.
4
5. How it works?
➢ Immunotherapy includes a wide variety of treatments that work in different ways.
1. By boosting the body’s immune system in a very general way.
2. Helps to train the immune system to attack cancer cells specially.
3. Giving immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins.
5
7. 1. Monoclonal Antibody.
➢ These are identical immunoglobulins, generated from a single B-cell clone. These
antibodies recognize unique epitopes, or binding sites, on a single antigen.
➢ Derivation from a single B-cell clones and subsequent targeting of a single epitope is
what differentiates monoclonal antibodies from polyclonal antibodies.
➢ Monoclonal antibodies are synthetic antibodies designed to target specific molecules
on the surface of cancer cells.
➢ Mainly two type of mAbs are used in treatment of different disease, these are-
i. Conjugated Monoclonal Antibody.
a. Radio-labeledAbs
b. Chemo-labeledAbs
c. Immunotoxins
ii. Naked MonoclonalAntibody.
7
8. Production of Monoclonal antibodies
a) Immunization- any animal i.e. mouse are immunized 2-3 times with antigen
(subcutaneously).
➢ After several weeks when serum concentration of antibodies are optimal, the animal is
sacrificed, spleen is aseptically removed. By mechanical and enzymatical method spleen
cells are separated desired plasma cells or activated B-lymphocytes are separated
through density gradient centrifugation from other spleen cells.
b) Myeloma cells- these are mutated myeloma cells.
➢It means through mutation, HGPRT gene (hypoxanthine guanosine phosphoribosyl
transferase gene) is done non functional and these cells are unable to produce
antibodies.
c) Cell fusion- these lymphocytes are mixed with HGPRT defective myeloma cell by
polyethylene glycol (PEG) by fusion.
d) Selection of Hybridoma- when the cells are cultured in HAT medium( Hypoxanthine,
Aminopterin, Thymidine). In this medium, only hybridoma cells will be grown and other
cells will disappear with in 7-10 days.
e) Screening and purification of product OR Antibody are harvested from the culture.
8
10. i. Conjugated monoclonal antibody-
➢ They are also sometimes referred to as tagged, labeled or loaded antibodies.
➢ They can be divided into groups depending on what they are linked to.
➢ mAbs with radioactive particle attached are referred to as radiolabeled and treatment with this type of
antibody is k/a Radioimmunotherapy(RIT).
➢ mAbs with chemotherapy drug attached are referred to as Chemolabeled.
➢ mAbs attached to cell toxins are called immunotoxins.
ii. Naked monoclonal antibody-
➢ They are antibodies that have no drug or radioactive material attached to them.
➢ They work by themselves.
➢They are the most common type of mAbs used to treat cancer.
➢ Naked mAbs can work in different ways, some may boost a person’s immune response against cancer cells.
While other work by blocking specific proteins that help cancer cell grow(some may do both).
➢ They are most widely used immunotherapeutics agents.
➢ Example- Herceptin (trastuzumab) is an antibody against the HER 2/ neu protein. It is used to treat breast
and stomach cancer that have large amount of this protein.
10
11. 2. Therapeutic cancer vaccine.
➢Cancer vaccines may contain cancer cell, part of the cell, or purified tumor specific
antigen.
➢Two categories of cancer vaccine are-
a) Cell based- In which the patient cancer cell is cultured with patients own immune
system cells and derived back to the same patient.
b) Vector based- In which the engineered virus or other vector is used to introduced
cancer specific proteins and other molecules in order to stimulate the patient immune
system to recognize the tumor cells to fight the cancer.
11
12. 3. Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors.
➢ Checkpoints are proteins found on T cell that regulate how T cell respond to foreign
cells.
➢ Checkpoint inhibitors are a class of immunotherapy drugs that block certain
proteins(checkpoints) that inhibit the immune system’s response against cancer cells. By
removing these brakes, the immune system can better recognize and attack the tumor.
➢ When a T cell comes close to another cell, it probes certain proteins on the surface of
that cell using a T cell receptor. If the protein of the inspected cell indicate that the cell is
foreign cell, the T cell stages an attack against it. Checkpoints signal to T cell to multiply
themselves to fight the invader. Once the invader is destroyed, checkpoints signal the T
cell to turn off and shut down the T cell multiplication response.
➢ If T cells are active for too long or react to things they should not, then they will start to
destroy healthy cells and tissues which could result in autoimmune disorder such as-
Crohn’s disease or rheumatoid arthritis.
12
13. ➢ Two checkpoint proteins that work together to turn off (stop) the T cells after the
multiplication response are PD-1 and PD-L1. PD-1 is a checkpoint protein found on T-
cells. When PD-1 binds to PD-L1, a protein present on normal cells, it sends a message
to the immune system to leave the cell alone. As a result it reduce the production of T
cells and enables more T cell to die.
➢ T cells only expect normal cells to produce PD-L1, but sometimes cancer cell can
avoid an immune system attack by producing PD-L1 on their surfaces.
➢ Immune checkpoints inhibitors that treat blood cancer by binding to the PD-1 receptor
on T cell and blocking the interaction of PD-1 and PD-L1.
➢ EXAMPLE- Pembrolizumab (Keytruda) used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma.
13
14. 4. Non-Specific Immunotherapies.
➢ They don’t target foreign particles specifically.
➢ They stimulate the immune system in a more general way, but this can still sometimes
lead to a better immune response against foreign particles.
i. Cytokines-
➢ cytokines are small protein made by some immune system cells.( innate macrophages,
dendritic cells, natural killer cells and the adaptive T and B lymphocytes)
➢ They are crucial in controlling the growth and activity of other immune system cells and
blood cells.
➢ The primary function of cytokines is to regulate inflammation.
➢ Cytokines are injected, either under the skin, into a muscle, or into a vein.
Cytokines destruct tumor cell by two mechanism-
1. Direct antitumor e.g.- TNF alpha, IL-6
2. Indirect enhancement of antitumor response e.g.- IL-2 promote T cell and NK cell
growth.
14
15. ii. Interferons-
➢ These cytokines, first discovered in the late 1950s, help the body to resist virus
infections and cancers.
➢ The types of interferons (IFN) are named after the first 3 letters of the Greek alphabet.
a. IFN- Alpha
b. IFN- Beta
c. IFN- Gamma
➢ Only IFN-alpha is used to treat cancer. It boosts the ability of certain immune cells to
attack cancer cells.
➢ It may also slow the growth of cancer cells directly, as well as the blood vessels that
tumours need to grow.
15
16. iii. Interleukins-
➢ Interleukins are a group of cytokines that act as chemical signals between white blood
cells.
➢ Interleukin-2 (IL-2) helps immune system cells grow and divide more quickly.
➢ When a man-made version of IL-2 was approved by the USFDA in 1992 to treat
advanced kidney cancer, it became the first true immunotherapy approved to be used
alone to treat cancer.
16
17. 5. Adoptive cell therapy.
➢ Adoptive cell transfer is a type of immunotherapy that uses
a patient’s own T cell to help fight cancer.
➢ The T cells are taken from the patient’s blood or from the
tumour itself and treated in the laboratory with substances
to make them better to target and kill cancer cells in their
bodies.
➢ There are two main approaches :-
a. Immune cells are isolated, expanded and reintroduced
into the cancer patient.
b. Immune cells are genetically modified to “boost” their
cancer-fighting ability, and
then reintroduced into the cancer patient.
EXAMPLE- Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy.
17
18. Humanisation antibody therapy
Antibody – An antibody is a protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign
objects like bacteria and viruses.
➢Each antibody recognizes a specific antigen unique to its target.
Humanized Antibody- They are antibodies from non-human species whose protein sequences have
been modified to increase their similarity to antibody variants produced naturally in humans.
➢The process of humanization is usually applied to monoclonal antibodies developed for administration
to humans. (e.g- antibodies developed as anti-cancer drugs)
18
19. Why Humanization is necessary…?
➢ Humanization can be necessary when the process of developing a specific antibody
involves generation in a non-human immune system (such as that in mice).
➢ The protein sequences of antibodies produced in this way are partially distinct from
homologous antibodies occurring naturally in humans, and are therefore potentially
immunogenic (able to produce an immune response) when administered to human
patients.
19
20. Murine antibodies had several shortfalls which includes-
➢ A short half-life within the living body (i.e. in-vivo) due to host immune rejection.
➢ limited penetration into target cells (such as tumor site).
➢ Being 100% murine proteins, they are recognized as foreign by the human body and
therefore they are rejected by an antibody-mediated immune response (i.e. HAMA-
human anti-murine antibodies, produced by the host).
20
21. Methods of Humanization antibodies
1. CDRs grafting (complementarity determining regions)
2. Hybridoma technology using transgenic mice
3. Hybrid-Hybridoma
4. Memory B-cell immortalization
5. Recombinant antibodies by cloning V region gene
21
22. 1. CDRs Grafting.
➢ The complementarity determining regions are part of the ‘variable ends’ of an antibody
which are responsible for that very antibody to bind to a specific antigen.
➢ Also known as Antibody reshaping.
Steps involved are-
complementarity determining regions(CDRs) of murine antibody variable regions.
Grafted into variable regions of human antibody.
Whichwere then joined to constant regions of human antibody.
Humanized reshaped antibody produced.
22
23. 2. Hybridoma technology using transgenic mouse.
a) Immunization- any animal i.e. mouse are immunized 2-3 times with antigen
(subcutaneously).
• After several weeks when serum concentration of antibodies are optimal, the animal is
sacrificed, spleen is aseptically removed. By mechanical and enzymatical method spleen
cells are separated desired plasma cells or activated B-lymphocytes are separated through
density gradient centrifugation from other spleen cells.
b) Myeloma cells- these are mutated myeloma cells.
• It means through mutation, HGPRT gene (hypoxanthine guanosine phosphoribosyl
transferase gene) is done non functional and these cells are unable to produce antibodies.
c) Cell fusion- these lymphocytes are mixed with HGPRT defective myeloma cell by
polyethylene glycol (PEG) by fusion.
d) Selection of Hybridoma- when the cells are cultured in HAT medium( Hypoxanthine,
Aminopterin, Thymidine). In this medium, only hybridoma cells will be grown and other cells
will disappear with in 7-10 days.
e) Screening and purification of product OR Antibody are harvested from the culture.
23
24. 3. Immortalizing memory B cell.
➢ This technique involves isolation of human memory B cells from peripheral blood
mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of infected patients.
➢ These B cells are then immortalised using Epstein Barr virus (EBV) in the presence of
a polyclonal B cell activator (mostly CpG oligo-deoxy- nucleotide).
➢ These transformed cells are capable of producing a human monoclonal antibody with
desired antigen specificity.
➢ Finally the culture supernatants are screened directly for specific antibodies. Positive
cultures are further cloned and fully humanised.
➢ The main limitation of B cell immortalization is the antibody produced are only specific
to the antigen from the infected organism.
24
25. Immunotherapeutics in clinical practice
➢Emil von Behring and Wernicke found that animals could be cured of Diphtheria and
an injection of sera produced by animals immunized with an attenuated form of
diphtheria successfully treated a child with Diphtheria.
➢ Emil von Behring discovered Diphtheria and tetanus vaccine.(passive immunology)
➢ In 1891, William B. Coley (father of Immunotherapy), Injected bacteria into a patient
with cancer and found that due to bacteria infection the patient’s immune system got
stimulated and helped in shrink patient tumour.
➢ Drugs like Thalidomide, Lenalidomide can boost immune system (immunomodulatory
agents). They are used to treat myeloma (cancer of plasma cells).
➢ Checkpoints inhibitors have shown a remarkable antitumour efficacy in a broad
spectrum of malignancy (presence of cancerous cells that have ability to spread).
25