This document describes an IoT-based environmental monitoring system using a wireless sensor network. It discusses key components of the system including sensor nodes, a Raspberry Pi gateway, and an application server. The sensor nodes collect data from temperature, light, and moisture sensors. The Raspberry Pi processes and transmits the sensor data via a wireless network. An application server receives the data, stores it, and provides access to users and other IoT applications. The system aims to enable long-term, low-cost environmental monitoring for various IoT applications.
SECURITY AND KEY MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES OVER WSN (A SURVEY) IJCSES Journal
This document discusses security and key management challenges in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It provides an overview of WSNs, their applications, advantages and disadvantages. It also discusses open research challenges in WSNs, including interoperability, scalability, energy efficiency, mobility management, deployment, localization and routing. The document outlines security objectives for WSNs including confidentiality, authentication, integrity, freshness and availability. It describes threat models for WSNs and different types of attacks. Finally, it discusses key management operations and goals that are important for security in WSNs.
Wireless Sensor Network – Theoretical Findings and ApplicationsAshishDPatel1
Wireless sensor networks (WSN) consist of tiny sensor nodes scattered on a relatively large geographical area. The nodes are cooperative in nature, that is, they can communication with one another or to a central control unit. The work of each such node is to collect the information from surrounding like pressure, temperature, humidity, magnetic fields, optical fields etc [2]. Actually they are ad hoc network with some additional constraints. The node should be capable enough for power consumption, collection of data, self healing, mobility, self configuration to name a few. These features of WSN node differentiate it from conventional ad hoc networks [14]. This survey paper aims at reporting wireless sensor network, its design, networking of nodes, and security in system. In this paper, fundamentals of wireless sensor network are discussed. Different component like sensor, microcontroller, battery require for sensor networks are explained in detail. We have tried to include all the aspects of WSN. The Protocols, Operating Systems, tools require for WSN node programming and some security issues are also discussed.
Analysis of programming aspects of wireless sensor networksiaemedu
This document discusses programming aspects of wireless sensor networks and non-uniformity issues. It analyzes programming efforts for developing test cases using wireless sensor network solutions versus traditional tools. It also explores system performance based on metrics like overhead, energy usage, and resource utilization. Key frameworks discussed include WiSeKit for adaptive applications, Remora for component-based programming, and extensions that enable distributed sensor services, dynamic reconfiguration, and integration with Internet systems.
Issues and Challenges in Distributed Sensor Networks- A ReviewIOSR Journals
1) The document discusses various design issues and challenges in distributed sensor networks, including limited resources of sensor nodes, scalability, frequent topology changes, and data aggregation.
2) Data aggregation aims to reduce redundant data by having sensor nodes combine and summarize correlated sensor readings. This helps reduce transmission costs and bandwidth usage.
3) Time synchronization is also an important challenge as many sensor network applications require correlating sensor readings with physical times, but achieving precise synchronization is difficult given the networks' constraints.
Charith Perera, Arkady Zaslavsky, Michael Compton, Peter Christen, and Dimitrios Georgakopoulos, Semantic-driven Configuration of Internet of Things Middleware, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Semantics, Knowledge & Grids (SKG), Beijing, China, October, 2013
Implementation of environmental monitoring based on KAA IoT platformjournalBEEI
Wireless sensor network (WSN) is a key to access the internet of things (IoT). The popularity of IoT and the prediction that there will be more devices connected to the Internet cause difficulties in integrating and making connected devices. The problem of IoT implementation are the lack of real-time data collection, processing, and the inability to provide continuous monitoring. To overcome these problems, this paper proposes an IoT device for monitoring environmental conditions through the IoT KAA platform that can be monitored anywhere and anytime in real time. The end device node consists of several sensors such as as temperature, humidity, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors. The collected data from the end device node will be transmitted via a communication based on IEEE 802.15.4 to Raspberry Pi gateway, then sent to the KAA cloud server and saved into the database. The environmental data can be accessed via a web-based sensor application. We Analize the performance evaluation in terms of transaction, availability, data transfer, response time, transaction rate, throughput, and concurrency. The experimental result shows that the use of KAA IoT platform is better than that without platform.
IRJET- Integrating Wireless Sensor Networks with Cloud Computing and Emerging...IRJET Journal
This document discusses integrating wireless sensor networks with cloud computing through the use of middleware services. It proposes a model that combines wireless sensor networks and cloud computing, allowing for easy management of remotely connected sensor nodes and the data they generate. The model uses middleware as an intermediary layer between the wireless sensor networks and cloud to provide data compatibility, bandwidth management, security, and connectivity. It describes how sensor data can be collected via heterogeneous wireless networks, additional computational capabilities provided through cloud services, and information delivered to different types of end users through a networked control system. Load balancing of the cloud computing environment is achieved using a honey bee foraging strategy algorithm.
This document describes an IoT-based environmental monitoring system using a wireless sensor network. It discusses key components of the system including sensor nodes, a Raspberry Pi gateway, and an application server. The sensor nodes collect data from temperature, light, and moisture sensors. The Raspberry Pi processes and transmits the sensor data via a wireless network. An application server receives the data, stores it, and provides access to users and other IoT applications. The system aims to enable long-term, low-cost environmental monitoring for various IoT applications.
SECURITY AND KEY MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES OVER WSN (A SURVEY) IJCSES Journal
This document discusses security and key management challenges in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It provides an overview of WSNs, their applications, advantages and disadvantages. It also discusses open research challenges in WSNs, including interoperability, scalability, energy efficiency, mobility management, deployment, localization and routing. The document outlines security objectives for WSNs including confidentiality, authentication, integrity, freshness and availability. It describes threat models for WSNs and different types of attacks. Finally, it discusses key management operations and goals that are important for security in WSNs.
Wireless Sensor Network – Theoretical Findings and ApplicationsAshishDPatel1
Wireless sensor networks (WSN) consist of tiny sensor nodes scattered on a relatively large geographical area. The nodes are cooperative in nature, that is, they can communication with one another or to a central control unit. The work of each such node is to collect the information from surrounding like pressure, temperature, humidity, magnetic fields, optical fields etc [2]. Actually they are ad hoc network with some additional constraints. The node should be capable enough for power consumption, collection of data, self healing, mobility, self configuration to name a few. These features of WSN node differentiate it from conventional ad hoc networks [14]. This survey paper aims at reporting wireless sensor network, its design, networking of nodes, and security in system. In this paper, fundamentals of wireless sensor network are discussed. Different component like sensor, microcontroller, battery require for sensor networks are explained in detail. We have tried to include all the aspects of WSN. The Protocols, Operating Systems, tools require for WSN node programming and some security issues are also discussed.
Analysis of programming aspects of wireless sensor networksiaemedu
This document discusses programming aspects of wireless sensor networks and non-uniformity issues. It analyzes programming efforts for developing test cases using wireless sensor network solutions versus traditional tools. It also explores system performance based on metrics like overhead, energy usage, and resource utilization. Key frameworks discussed include WiSeKit for adaptive applications, Remora for component-based programming, and extensions that enable distributed sensor services, dynamic reconfiguration, and integration with Internet systems.
Issues and Challenges in Distributed Sensor Networks- A ReviewIOSR Journals
1) The document discusses various design issues and challenges in distributed sensor networks, including limited resources of sensor nodes, scalability, frequent topology changes, and data aggregation.
2) Data aggregation aims to reduce redundant data by having sensor nodes combine and summarize correlated sensor readings. This helps reduce transmission costs and bandwidth usage.
3) Time synchronization is also an important challenge as many sensor network applications require correlating sensor readings with physical times, but achieving precise synchronization is difficult given the networks' constraints.
Charith Perera, Arkady Zaslavsky, Michael Compton, Peter Christen, and Dimitrios Georgakopoulos, Semantic-driven Configuration of Internet of Things Middleware, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Semantics, Knowledge & Grids (SKG), Beijing, China, October, 2013
Implementation of environmental monitoring based on KAA IoT platformjournalBEEI
Wireless sensor network (WSN) is a key to access the internet of things (IoT). The popularity of IoT and the prediction that there will be more devices connected to the Internet cause difficulties in integrating and making connected devices. The problem of IoT implementation are the lack of real-time data collection, processing, and the inability to provide continuous monitoring. To overcome these problems, this paper proposes an IoT device for monitoring environmental conditions through the IoT KAA platform that can be monitored anywhere and anytime in real time. The end device node consists of several sensors such as as temperature, humidity, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors. The collected data from the end device node will be transmitted via a communication based on IEEE 802.15.4 to Raspberry Pi gateway, then sent to the KAA cloud server and saved into the database. The environmental data can be accessed via a web-based sensor application. We Analize the performance evaluation in terms of transaction, availability, data transfer, response time, transaction rate, throughput, and concurrency. The experimental result shows that the use of KAA IoT platform is better than that without platform.
IRJET- Integrating Wireless Sensor Networks with Cloud Computing and Emerging...IRJET Journal
This document discusses integrating wireless sensor networks with cloud computing through the use of middleware services. It proposes a model that combines wireless sensor networks and cloud computing, allowing for easy management of remotely connected sensor nodes and the data they generate. The model uses middleware as an intermediary layer between the wireless sensor networks and cloud to provide data compatibility, bandwidth management, security, and connectivity. It describes how sensor data can be collected via heterogeneous wireless networks, additional computational capabilities provided through cloud services, and information delivered to different types of end users through a networked control system. Load balancing of the cloud computing environment is achieved using a honey bee foraging strategy algorithm.
Wireless sensor network plays vital role in today’s life, it is a collection of sensors that are scattered in different directions which are further used to control and measure the physical conditions of environment as well as to organize to the data somewhere at centre location. As in context of greenhouse we can measure various parameters such as temperature, humidity, water level, insect monitoring and light intensity.
Engineering Cross-Layer Fault Tolerance in Many-Core SystemsSERENEWorkshop
1) The document discusses engineering cross-layer fault tolerance in many-core systems. It proposes a cross-layer approach where fault tolerance is distributed across system layers rather than handled solely within a single layer.
2) A motivating example of cross-layer fault tolerance is discussed using TCP/IP, where errors can be detected and recovered across multiple layers for improved efficiency.
3) The challenges of ensuring cross-layer fault tolerance for many-core systems containing tens to thousands of cores are discussed to improve reliability, performance and energy efficiency.
4) The plan is to implement a case study of a car number plate recognition application to gain experience with cross-layer fault tolerance, and apply order graphs to model performance
Sensor nets the business of surveillanceKaye Beach
The document discusses emerging sensor networks and their potential business applications. It describes how sensor networks can monitor processes remotely, increase security, and reduce costs. Research is focusing on minimizing sensor costs and developing intelligent sensor management systems. The DREAMSNet research group is working on sensor networks for environmental monitoring, defense, and biometric security applications.
Energetic Slot Allotment for Improving Interchange in Wireless Sensor NetworkIRJET Journal
This document discusses improving energy efficiency and throughput in wireless sensor networks. It begins with an introduction to wireless sensor networks and their design challenges, including limited energy capacity. It then discusses how existing medium access control protocols provide energy efficiency but at the cost of increased delay and limited throughput. The document proposes dynamic slot allocation as a way to adapt bandwidth based on traffic load, maintaining low duty cycles with light traffic but scheduling more transmission opportunities with increased traffic. This allows energy to only be used when needed to carry application traffic. The document surveys dynamic slot allocation approaches in wireless sensor networks.
Sensor Data Aggregation using a Cross Layer Framework for Smart City Applicat...IRJET Journal
This document proposes a cross-layer commit protocol for sensor data aggregation in smart cities. It implements query-based data aggregation using the network and application layers. The application layer initiates queries that are sent to sensor nodes. Nodes that can provide the requested data reply to form clusters. The node with the highest residual energy and closest average distance to members is selected as cluster head. As cluster head, it collects and aggregates data from members and sends it to the sink node. This approach reduces energy consumption compared to other data aggregation methods. A prototype was created to test the protocol for applications like garbage monitoring and weather sensing.
ENERGY EFFICIENT MULTIHOP QUALITY PATH BASED DATA COLLECTION IN WIRELESS SENS...Editor IJMTER
In recent years there has been an increased focus on the use of sensor networks to sense and measure
the environment. This leads to a wide variety of theoretical and practical issues on appropriate protocols for data
sensing and transfer. Recent work shows sink mobility can improve the energy efficiency in wireless sensor
networks (WSNs). However, data delivery latency often increases due to the speed limit of mobile sink. Most of
them exploit mobility to address the problem of data collection in WSNs. The WSNs with MS (mobile Sink) and
provide a comprehensive taxonomy of their architectures, based on the role of the MS. An overview of the data
collection process in such a scenario, and identify the corresponding issues and challenges. A protocol named
weighted rendezvous planning (WRP) which is a heuristic method that finds a near-optimal traveling tour that
minimizes the energy consumption of sensor nodes. Focus on the path selection problem in delay-guaranteed
sensor networks with a path-constrained mobile sink. Concentrate an efficient data collection scheme, which
simultaneously improves the total amount of data and reduces the energy consumption. The optimal path is chosen
to meet the requirement on delay as well as minimize the energy consumption of entire network. Predictable sink
mobility is exploited to improve energy efficiency of sensor networks.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have recently gained a lot of attention by scientific community. Small and inexpensive devices with low energy consumption and limited computing resources are increasingly being adopted in different application scenarios including environmental monitoring, target tracking and biomedical health monitoring. In many such applications, node localization is inherently one of the system parameters.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are emerging as an enabling technology for many new communication technologies. The document reviews several WSN-based technologies including cognitive radio sensor networks, the Internet of things, cloud computing, smart grids, and vehicular sensor networks. It discusses the role of WSNs in monitoring physical environments and infrastructure as well as how WSNs provide a platform for technologies like IoT due to their low-cost, small-size, and intelligent sensing capabilities.
IRJET-E-Waste Management using RoboticsIRJET Journal
This document describes a proposed air quality monitoring system for cities using IoT technology. The system would use sensors to measure pollutants, temperature, humidity and air quality index in various locations. The sensor data would be wirelessly transmitted via Wi-Fi modules to a server hosting a website. The website would display the sensor readings in tabular form and provide alerts, news, and surveys about air pollution levels to raise public awareness. The proposed system was intended to be implemented using Arduino boards connected to sensors and ESP8266 Wi-Fi modules to transmit data to a cloud-based server and website.
International Journal of Ubiquitous Computing (IJU) is a quarterly open access peer-reviewed journal provides excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of ubiquitous computing. Current information age is witnessing a dramatic use of digital and electronic devices in the workplace and beyond. Ubiquitous Computing presents a rather arduous requirement of robustness, reliability and availability to the end user. Ubiquitous computing has received a significant and sustained research interest in terms of designing and deploying large scale and high performance computational applications in real life. The aim of the journal is to provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to meet and share cutting-edge development in the field.
Energy efficient intrusion detection systemiaemedu
This document discusses energy efficient intrusion detection systems for wireless sensor networks. It proposes a hybrid intrusion detection system (HIDS) that considers both the energy consumption and past behavior of nodes. The HIDS classifies nodes as malicious or normal using an energy prediction approach, and then further analyzes abnormal packets sent by malicious nodes using a misuse detection module. By taking both energy patterns and past transmissions into account, the proposed HIDS aims to more accurately detect intrusions while minimizing energy usage compared to other intrusion detection schemes for wireless sensor networks.
This document presents research on assessing risk to determine the optimal level of redundancy needed when moving critical applications to the cloud. It develops fault tree models based on the physical structure of clouds to calculate failure frequency. It factors in varying resource quality and the costs of downtime and VMs. The results show that deploying between 4-6 redundant VMs provides significant availability gains and reduces total costs by lowering risk compared to basic redundancy approaches. The aim was met of leveraging cloud features in modeling to support high-value, mission critical applications on public clouds.
Intrusion Detection and Countermeasure in Virtual Network Systems Using NICE ...IJERA Editor
The cloud computing has increased in many organizations. It provides many benefits in terms of low cost and accessibility of data. Ensuring the security of cloud computing is a major factor in the cloud computing environment, as users often store sensitive information with cloud storage providers but these providers may be untrusted. In this project we propose anIntrusion Detection and Countermeasure in Virtual Network Systems mechanism called NICE to prevent vulnerable virtual machines from being compromised in the cloud. NICE detects and mitigates collaborative attacks in the cloud virtual networking environment. The system performance evaluation demonstrates the feasibility of NICE and shows that the proposed solution can significantly reduce the risk of the cloud system from being exploited and abused by internal and external attackers.
Serene 2015
Davide Scaramuzza
Abstract: With drones becoming more and more popular, safety is a big concern. A critical situation occurs when a drone temporarily loses its GPS position information, which might lead it to crash. This can happen, for instance, when flying close to buildings where GPS signal is lost. In such situations, it is desirable that the drone can rely on fall-back systems and regain stable flight as soon as possible. In this talk, I will present novel methods to automatically recover and stabilize a quadrotor from any initial condition or execute emergency landing. On the one hand, this new technology will allow quadrotors to be launched by simply tossing them in the air, like a “baseball ball”. On the other hand, it will allow them to recover back into stable flight or land on a safe area after a system failure. Since this technology does not rely on any external infrastructure, such as GPS, it enables the safe use of drones in both indoor and outdoor environments. Thus, it can become relevant for commercial use of drones, such as parcel delivery.
Recent videos:
Automatic failure recovery without GPS: https://youtu.be/pGU1s6Y55JI
Autonomous Landing-site detection and landing: https://youtu.be/phaBKFwfcJ4
This document summarizes the analysis of wireless sensor networks, including security issues, attacks, and challenges. It discusses the characteristics of wireless sensor networks and their architecture. It outlines various security goals for wireless sensor networks, including confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and availability. It then describes different types of attacks against wireless sensor networks at the physical, link, network, and transport layers. These include jamming, tampering, exhaustion, collision, and flooding attacks. Finally, it discusses key challenges for wireless sensor networks, such as limited resources, heterogeneous platforms, dynamic network topologies, and handling mixed traffic from different applications.
This document discusses wireless sensor networks and transport protocols. It describes smart sensor nodes that contain sensors, a processor, memory, power supply, radio, and actuator. It also discusses unstructured and structured wireless sensor network deployments. Several transport protocols are summarized, including STCP, GARUDA, CODA, DST, PSFQ, ESRT, and PORT. Congestion detection, reliability measures, and energy conservation techniques for these protocols are also covered.
Human: Thank you for the summary. Here is another document for you to summarize:
[DOCUMENT]
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of spatially distributed autonomous sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature
This document discusses generating sensor nodes and clustering for energy efficiency in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It describes how sensor nodes are organized into clusters with a cluster head that communicates with the base station. The presentation proposes an algorithm for selecting the cluster head based on the node's distance to the base station and other nodes, with the goal of increasing network lifetime by optimizing energy consumption. Clustering helps reduce energy usage through data aggregation and limiting transmissions to cluster heads only.
This document summarizes a wireless sensor network system implemented by the authors. The system uses 4 sensor nodes to sense temperature and a control node interfaced with a base station PC. It implements a modified version of the TOPDISC topology discovery algorithm using DHCP for dynamic addressing. The routing algorithm uses a mixture of spanning tree and N-link state protocols. Future enhancements include implementing fail safes and fully configuring the wireless sensor network system.
A wireless sensor network consists of spatially distributed sensor nodes that monitor physical conditions and communicate wirelessly. Nodes sense data, process it, and transmit it to other nodes or a central gateway. The gateway provides a connection to the wired world to collect, process, analyze and present measurement data. Routers can extend the communication range between nodes and the gateway. Sensor nodes are small, require little power, are programmable and cost-effective to purchase and maintain.
Wireless sensor network plays vital role in today’s life, it is a collection of sensors that are scattered in different directions which are further used to control and measure the physical conditions of environment as well as to organize to the data somewhere at centre location. As in context of greenhouse we can measure various parameters such as temperature, humidity, water level, insect monitoring and light intensity.
Engineering Cross-Layer Fault Tolerance in Many-Core SystemsSERENEWorkshop
1) The document discusses engineering cross-layer fault tolerance in many-core systems. It proposes a cross-layer approach where fault tolerance is distributed across system layers rather than handled solely within a single layer.
2) A motivating example of cross-layer fault tolerance is discussed using TCP/IP, where errors can be detected and recovered across multiple layers for improved efficiency.
3) The challenges of ensuring cross-layer fault tolerance for many-core systems containing tens to thousands of cores are discussed to improve reliability, performance and energy efficiency.
4) The plan is to implement a case study of a car number plate recognition application to gain experience with cross-layer fault tolerance, and apply order graphs to model performance
Sensor nets the business of surveillanceKaye Beach
The document discusses emerging sensor networks and their potential business applications. It describes how sensor networks can monitor processes remotely, increase security, and reduce costs. Research is focusing on minimizing sensor costs and developing intelligent sensor management systems. The DREAMSNet research group is working on sensor networks for environmental monitoring, defense, and biometric security applications.
Energetic Slot Allotment for Improving Interchange in Wireless Sensor NetworkIRJET Journal
This document discusses improving energy efficiency and throughput in wireless sensor networks. It begins with an introduction to wireless sensor networks and their design challenges, including limited energy capacity. It then discusses how existing medium access control protocols provide energy efficiency but at the cost of increased delay and limited throughput. The document proposes dynamic slot allocation as a way to adapt bandwidth based on traffic load, maintaining low duty cycles with light traffic but scheduling more transmission opportunities with increased traffic. This allows energy to only be used when needed to carry application traffic. The document surveys dynamic slot allocation approaches in wireless sensor networks.
Sensor Data Aggregation using a Cross Layer Framework for Smart City Applicat...IRJET Journal
This document proposes a cross-layer commit protocol for sensor data aggregation in smart cities. It implements query-based data aggregation using the network and application layers. The application layer initiates queries that are sent to sensor nodes. Nodes that can provide the requested data reply to form clusters. The node with the highest residual energy and closest average distance to members is selected as cluster head. As cluster head, it collects and aggregates data from members and sends it to the sink node. This approach reduces energy consumption compared to other data aggregation methods. A prototype was created to test the protocol for applications like garbage monitoring and weather sensing.
ENERGY EFFICIENT MULTIHOP QUALITY PATH BASED DATA COLLECTION IN WIRELESS SENS...Editor IJMTER
In recent years there has been an increased focus on the use of sensor networks to sense and measure
the environment. This leads to a wide variety of theoretical and practical issues on appropriate protocols for data
sensing and transfer. Recent work shows sink mobility can improve the energy efficiency in wireless sensor
networks (WSNs). However, data delivery latency often increases due to the speed limit of mobile sink. Most of
them exploit mobility to address the problem of data collection in WSNs. The WSNs with MS (mobile Sink) and
provide a comprehensive taxonomy of their architectures, based on the role of the MS. An overview of the data
collection process in such a scenario, and identify the corresponding issues and challenges. A protocol named
weighted rendezvous planning (WRP) which is a heuristic method that finds a near-optimal traveling tour that
minimizes the energy consumption of sensor nodes. Focus on the path selection problem in delay-guaranteed
sensor networks with a path-constrained mobile sink. Concentrate an efficient data collection scheme, which
simultaneously improves the total amount of data and reduces the energy consumption. The optimal path is chosen
to meet the requirement on delay as well as minimize the energy consumption of entire network. Predictable sink
mobility is exploited to improve energy efficiency of sensor networks.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have recently gained a lot of attention by scientific community. Small and inexpensive devices with low energy consumption and limited computing resources are increasingly being adopted in different application scenarios including environmental monitoring, target tracking and biomedical health monitoring. In many such applications, node localization is inherently one of the system parameters.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are emerging as an enabling technology for many new communication technologies. The document reviews several WSN-based technologies including cognitive radio sensor networks, the Internet of things, cloud computing, smart grids, and vehicular sensor networks. It discusses the role of WSNs in monitoring physical environments and infrastructure as well as how WSNs provide a platform for technologies like IoT due to their low-cost, small-size, and intelligent sensing capabilities.
IRJET-E-Waste Management using RoboticsIRJET Journal
This document describes a proposed air quality monitoring system for cities using IoT technology. The system would use sensors to measure pollutants, temperature, humidity and air quality index in various locations. The sensor data would be wirelessly transmitted via Wi-Fi modules to a server hosting a website. The website would display the sensor readings in tabular form and provide alerts, news, and surveys about air pollution levels to raise public awareness. The proposed system was intended to be implemented using Arduino boards connected to sensors and ESP8266 Wi-Fi modules to transmit data to a cloud-based server and website.
International Journal of Ubiquitous Computing (IJU) is a quarterly open access peer-reviewed journal provides excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of ubiquitous computing. Current information age is witnessing a dramatic use of digital and electronic devices in the workplace and beyond. Ubiquitous Computing presents a rather arduous requirement of robustness, reliability and availability to the end user. Ubiquitous computing has received a significant and sustained research interest in terms of designing and deploying large scale and high performance computational applications in real life. The aim of the journal is to provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to meet and share cutting-edge development in the field.
Energy efficient intrusion detection systemiaemedu
This document discusses energy efficient intrusion detection systems for wireless sensor networks. It proposes a hybrid intrusion detection system (HIDS) that considers both the energy consumption and past behavior of nodes. The HIDS classifies nodes as malicious or normal using an energy prediction approach, and then further analyzes abnormal packets sent by malicious nodes using a misuse detection module. By taking both energy patterns and past transmissions into account, the proposed HIDS aims to more accurately detect intrusions while minimizing energy usage compared to other intrusion detection schemes for wireless sensor networks.
This document presents research on assessing risk to determine the optimal level of redundancy needed when moving critical applications to the cloud. It develops fault tree models based on the physical structure of clouds to calculate failure frequency. It factors in varying resource quality and the costs of downtime and VMs. The results show that deploying between 4-6 redundant VMs provides significant availability gains and reduces total costs by lowering risk compared to basic redundancy approaches. The aim was met of leveraging cloud features in modeling to support high-value, mission critical applications on public clouds.
Intrusion Detection and Countermeasure in Virtual Network Systems Using NICE ...IJERA Editor
The cloud computing has increased in many organizations. It provides many benefits in terms of low cost and accessibility of data. Ensuring the security of cloud computing is a major factor in the cloud computing environment, as users often store sensitive information with cloud storage providers but these providers may be untrusted. In this project we propose anIntrusion Detection and Countermeasure in Virtual Network Systems mechanism called NICE to prevent vulnerable virtual machines from being compromised in the cloud. NICE detects and mitigates collaborative attacks in the cloud virtual networking environment. The system performance evaluation demonstrates the feasibility of NICE and shows that the proposed solution can significantly reduce the risk of the cloud system from being exploited and abused by internal and external attackers.
Serene 2015
Davide Scaramuzza
Abstract: With drones becoming more and more popular, safety is a big concern. A critical situation occurs when a drone temporarily loses its GPS position information, which might lead it to crash. This can happen, for instance, when flying close to buildings where GPS signal is lost. In such situations, it is desirable that the drone can rely on fall-back systems and regain stable flight as soon as possible. In this talk, I will present novel methods to automatically recover and stabilize a quadrotor from any initial condition or execute emergency landing. On the one hand, this new technology will allow quadrotors to be launched by simply tossing them in the air, like a “baseball ball”. On the other hand, it will allow them to recover back into stable flight or land on a safe area after a system failure. Since this technology does not rely on any external infrastructure, such as GPS, it enables the safe use of drones in both indoor and outdoor environments. Thus, it can become relevant for commercial use of drones, such as parcel delivery.
Recent videos:
Automatic failure recovery without GPS: https://youtu.be/pGU1s6Y55JI
Autonomous Landing-site detection and landing: https://youtu.be/phaBKFwfcJ4
This document summarizes the analysis of wireless sensor networks, including security issues, attacks, and challenges. It discusses the characteristics of wireless sensor networks and their architecture. It outlines various security goals for wireless sensor networks, including confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and availability. It then describes different types of attacks against wireless sensor networks at the physical, link, network, and transport layers. These include jamming, tampering, exhaustion, collision, and flooding attacks. Finally, it discusses key challenges for wireless sensor networks, such as limited resources, heterogeneous platforms, dynamic network topologies, and handling mixed traffic from different applications.
This document discusses wireless sensor networks and transport protocols. It describes smart sensor nodes that contain sensors, a processor, memory, power supply, radio, and actuator. It also discusses unstructured and structured wireless sensor network deployments. Several transport protocols are summarized, including STCP, GARUDA, CODA, DST, PSFQ, ESRT, and PORT. Congestion detection, reliability measures, and energy conservation techniques for these protocols are also covered.
Human: Thank you for the summary. Here is another document for you to summarize:
[DOCUMENT]
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of spatially distributed autonomous sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature
This document discusses generating sensor nodes and clustering for energy efficiency in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It describes how sensor nodes are organized into clusters with a cluster head that communicates with the base station. The presentation proposes an algorithm for selecting the cluster head based on the node's distance to the base station and other nodes, with the goal of increasing network lifetime by optimizing energy consumption. Clustering helps reduce energy usage through data aggregation and limiting transmissions to cluster heads only.
This document summarizes a wireless sensor network system implemented by the authors. The system uses 4 sensor nodes to sense temperature and a control node interfaced with a base station PC. It implements a modified version of the TOPDISC topology discovery algorithm using DHCP for dynamic addressing. The routing algorithm uses a mixture of spanning tree and N-link state protocols. Future enhancements include implementing fail safes and fully configuring the wireless sensor network system.
A wireless sensor network consists of spatially distributed sensor nodes that monitor physical conditions and communicate wirelessly. Nodes sense data, process it, and transmit it to other nodes or a central gateway. The gateway provides a connection to the wired world to collect, process, analyze and present measurement data. Routers can extend the communication range between nodes and the gateway. Sensor nodes are small, require little power, are programmable and cost-effective to purchase and maintain.
This document summarizes a technical seminar report on wireless sensor networks submitted by two students, Kapil Dev Dwivedi and Shusma Sandey, to their professor Ravi Ranjan Mishra. The 5-page report includes an abstract, introduction to wireless sensor networks covering their technology, history and architecture, sensor technology, features of WSNs, applications of WSNs including environmental monitoring and health monitoring, standardization, and references.
Iaetsd implementation of a wireless sensor networkIaetsd Iaetsd
This document describes the design and implementation of a wireless sensor network platform for monitoring temperature in a forest area. Key requirements for the platform include low cost, ability to deploy a large number of sensors, long lifetime with low maintenance, and high quality of service. The document outlines the specifications for sensor nodes, gateway nodes, and the overall network architecture. It also provides details on the software and hardware design and implementation of the sensor nodes, gateway nodes, and monitoring system to meet the application requirements.
Design of a wsn platform for long term environmental monitoring for iot appli...Ecwaytech
This document presents the design of a wireless sensor network (WSN) platform for long-term environmental monitoring Internet of Things (IoT) applications. The proposed system uses a WSN as it allows for long-range communication and high accuracy from various environmental sensors. Information collected from sensors is transmitted to a Zigbee transceiver. The system considers requirements for low cost, long lifetime, low maintenance, and high quality of service. It aims to provide immediate updating of environmental information for IoT representation.
Design of a wsn platform for long term environmental monitoring for iot appli...Ecwayt
This document discusses the design of a wireless sensor network (WSN) platform for long-term environmental monitoring Internet of Things (IoT) applications. The proposed system uses WSN as it allows for long range communication and accuracy with different sensors to monitor the environment. Information is transmitted to a zigbee transreceiver. The hardware requirements include a microcontroller, zigbee module, sensors, and power supply. The software requirements are Keil IDE and Flash Magic.
Design of a wsn platform for long term environmental monitoring for iot appli...Ecwayt
This document discusses the design of a wireless sensor network (WSN) platform for long-term environmental monitoring Internet of Things (IoT) applications. The proposed system uses WSN as it allows for long range communication and accuracy with different sensors to monitor the environment. Information is transmitted to a zigbee transreceiver. The hardware requirements include a microcontroller, zigbee module, sensors, and power supply. The software requirements are Keil IDE and Flash Magic.
Concepts and evolution of research in the field of wireless sensor networksIJCNCJournal
This document provides a comprehensive review of research in the field of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It begins with an introduction to WSNs and discusses sensor nodes, network architectures, communication protocols, applications, and open research issues. It then reviews several related surveys that focus on specific aspects of WSNs such as applications, energy consumption techniques, security protocols, and testbeds. The document aims to provide an overview of all aspects of WSN research and identify promising directions like bio-inspired solutions. It discusses sensors and network types, architectures and services, and challenges like fault tolerance.
IRJET-A Brief Study of Leach based Routing Protocol in Wireless Sensor NetworksIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study of the Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) routing protocol for wireless sensor networks. It discusses how LEACH is an energy-efficient clustering-based protocol that helps improve the lifetime of wireless sensor networks. The document also reviews several other routing protocols and concludes that using a round robin schedule could help improve clustering in routing protocols for wireless sensor networks to balance energy usage across nodes.
This document describes a proposed LoRa-based data acquisition system for monitoring vehicles. Key points:
- The system would use LoRa technology and sensors to monitor various parameters in a vehicle and report the data to users via an IoT dashboard.
- LoRa allows long-range and low-power wireless connectivity for IoT applications. The system aims to leverage these capabilities of LoRa for vehicle monitoring.
- The goals of the data acquisition system are to monitor operations, provide effective communication to identify issues, collect and store diagnostic data, and analyze performance metrics in real-time to ensure reliable operation.
This document is a project report submitted by three students - M Manoj, S Parthiban, and R Raghav - for their Bachelor of Technology degree in Information Technology from Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering. The report proposes a Security Enhanced Distributed Reprogramming Protocol (SEDRP) to enhance security and mitigate impersonation attacks in the existing Secure Distributed Reprogramming Protocol (SDRP) for wireless sensor networks. The report includes an introduction to wireless sensor networks and distributed networking, a literature review of related work, a description of the proposed SEDRP system and its modules, system design details, implementation and results from simulating the system in NS2 network simulator.
A SURVEY OF ENERGY-EFFICIENT COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS IN WSNIAEME Publication
Wireless sensor networks are harshly restricted by storage capacity, energy and computing power. Wireless Sensor Networks have acquired a lot of attention by research community, manufacturer as well as actual users for monitoring remote trades and how to gather data in different environment. The wireless sensor nodes are especially battery powered devices having life can be extended for some times while long lasting and reliable for maintaining consumption of energy and network lifetime while designs applications and protocols. So it is essential to design effective and energy efficient protocol in order to enhance the network lifetime. In this paper we present the study of different energy efficient communication protocols of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs).Then some of the communication protocols which are widely used in WSNs to improve network performance are also discussed advantages and disadvantages of each protocols.
This document summarizes a study on existing wireless sensor networks that can be used for structural health monitoring. It discusses three main wireless sensor network platforms: Sensor Andrew Architecture, a structural health monitoring system using smart sensors, and Snowfort, a new wireless sensor network platform designed for infrastructure monitoring. The document outlines the key components, advantages, and limitations of each wireless sensor network platform for structural health monitoring applications.
Cloud computing and the low power wide area network (LPWAN) network represent the key infrastructures for developing intelligent solutions based on the internet of things (IoT). However, the diversity of use cases and deployment scenarios of IoT in the different domains makes optimizing IoT-based cloud solutions a major challenge. The cloud solution’s cost increases with the increase in central processing unit (CPU) resources and energy consumption. The optimal use of edge material resources in industrial solutions will reduce the consumption of resources and thus optimize cloud infrastructure costs in terms of resources and energy consumption. The article presents the network and application architecture of an IoT monitoring solution based on cloud services. Then, we study the integration of IoT services based on application placement strategies on the fog cloud compared to the traditional centralized cloud strategy. Simulations evaluate the scenarios with the iFogSim simulator and the analyzed results compare the traditional strategy with the cloud-fog. The results show that cost and energy consumption in the cloud can be significantly reduced by processing the application at the end devices level with respect to the possible limit of CPU processing power for each IoT end device. Latency and network usage respect quality of service constraints in cloud-fog placement for this type of monitoring-oriented IoT application.
Towards internet of things iots integration of wireless sensor network to clo...IJCNCJournal
Cloud computing provides great benefits for applications hosted on the Web that also have special
computational and storage requirements. This paper proposes an extensible and flexible architecture for
integrating Wireless Sensor Networks with the Cloud. We have used REST based Web services as an
interoperable application layer that can be directly integrated into other application domains for remote
monitoring such as e-health care services, smart homes, or even vehicular area networks (VAN). For proof
of concept, we have implemented a REST based Web services on an IP based low power WSN test bed,
which enables data access from anywhere. The alert feature has also been implemented to notify users via
email or tweets for monitoring data when they exceed values and events of interest.
Autonomous sensor nodes for Structural Health Monitoring of bridgesIRJET Journal
This document discusses using autonomous sensor nodes and wireless sensor networks for structural health monitoring of bridges. It aims to detect damage in structures early through continuous monitoring. Sensor nodes containing microcontrollers, temperature, vibration and pressure sensors would be attached to bridges and transmit data wirelessly. This would make inspections more efficient and improve safety by identifying issues early. The document reviews related work using similar wireless sensor network systems for structural monitoring. It discusses the need for such monitoring in India given the increasing construction of large buildings and infrastructure. The objectives are outlined as detecting, locating, identifying and quantifying any damage. Hardware and software components are listed including ESP32 microcontrollers and sensors to measure temperature, vibration and pressure.
Review on operating systems and routing protocols for wireless sensorIAEME Publication
This document provides an overview of operating systems and routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. It discusses several popular operating systems used in wireless sensor networks, including TinyOS, MANTIS, Contiki, RetOS, and MagnetOS. It describes the key features and limitations of each operating system. The document also reviews common routing protocols for wireless sensor networks, and discusses flooding and its variants as a basic routing technique.
Air Programming on Sunspot with use of Wireless Networksijsrd.com
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) provides us an effective means to monitor physical environments. The computing nodes in a WSN are resource constrained devices whose resources need to be used sparingly. The main requirement of a WSN is to operate unattended in remote locations for extended periods of time. Physical conditions, environmental conditions, upgrades, user preferences, and errors within the code can all contribute to the need to modify currently running applications. Therefore, reprogramming of sensor nodes is required. One of the important terminologies that are associated with WSN network is that of OVER THE AIR PROGRAMMING. This concept has been utilized so far as for Imote2 sensors that has been relatively utilized for the processing of the Deluge port (DP). They have so far been able to successfully reboot each application. But this rebooting is still not reliable and secure as there are certain security features that are affected in the processing. I will provide a more reliable, robust and secure system that would have enriched functionalities of that of OTA programming on SUNSPOT. Some important features of the SUN SPOT that I will be utilizing in this practical approach is that it supports isolated application models such as sensor networks, it allows running multiple applications in one. It does not create overhead on the entire system node as it provides lower level asynchronous for proper message delivery. It also supports migration from one device to another. This paper focuses on developing a multi-hop routing protocol for communication among Sun SPOT sensor nodes and a user front-end (i.e. visualizer) to visualise the collected values from all the nodes. To test the routing protocol before deploying it to sensor nodes, a simulation using J-Sim is created.
IRJET- A Review on Cluster-based Routing for Wireless Sensor NetworkIRJET Journal
This document reviews cluster-based routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. It discusses the challenges facing routing in WSNs such as limited energy, hardware constraints, and dynamic network topologies. It then categorizes cluster-based routing protocols into chain-based, tree-based, grid-based, and block-based approaches. A popular chain-based protocol called PEGASIS is described which forms sensor nodes into a chain to reduce data transmissions to the base station. The document aims to compare different cluster-based routing protocols to improve energy efficiency, network lifetime, and quality of service in WSNs.
This document summarizes a chapter from a book on wireless sensor networks. It discusses wireless sensor networks and their applications in monitoring various environmental parameters in greenhouses. It describes the components of a wireless sensor network including sensor nodes that collect data and multi-hop gateway nodes that transmit data to a central location. It also discusses some challenges with wireless sensor networks including hardware limitations and issues with power consumption and software. Finally, it provides examples of platforms and databases that enable online collaboration of sensor data.
Chapter 1 of insect monitoring using wsn sensornehasharma12345
This document summarizes a chapter about wireless sensor networks that includes:
1) Wireless sensor networks allow for monitoring various environmental parameters like temperature, humidity, and light intensity using scattered sensor nodes.
2) Sensor nodes are connected through sensors to other nodes to transmit data to a central location using multi-hop routing techniques.
3) Challenges for collaborative sensor data platforms include organizing conflicting or contradictory information from different sensors and users.
An Improved Enhanced Real Time Routing Protocol (IERT) for Mobile Wireless Se...IRJET Journal
This document discusses an improved enhanced real-time routing protocol (IERT) for mobile wireless sensor networks. The protocol aims to increase network lifetime by using a backup coordinator node if the primary coordinator fails. It also uses a corona-based routing structure to reduce routing holes and increase throughput. The protocol is simulated using NS2 and is shown to increase network lifetime by 30% compared to the previous ERTLD protocol, while also achieving lower delays and higher delivery rates. It provides improvements over real-time routing protocols for wireless sensor networks.
The rapid growth that has taken place in Computer Vision has been instrumental in driving the advancement of Image processing techniques and drawing inferences from them. Combined with the enormous capabilities that Deep Neural networks bring to the table, computers can be efficiently trained to automate the tasks and yield accurate and robust results quickly thus optimizing the process. Technological growth has enabled us to bring such computationally intensive tasks to lighter and lower-end mobile devices thus opening up a wide range of possibilities. WebRTC-the open-source web standard enables us to send multimedia-based data from peer to peer paving the way for Real-time Communication over the Web. With this project, we aim to build on one such opportunity that can enable us to perform custom object detection through an android based application installed on our mobile phones. Therefore, our problem statement is to be able to capture real-time feeds, perform custom object detection, generate inference results, and appropriately send intruder alerts when needed. To implement this, we propose a mobile-based over-the-cloud solution that can capitalize on the enormous and encouraging features of the YOLO algorithm and incorporate the functionalities of OpenCV’s DNN module for providing us with fast and correct inferences. Coupled with a good and intuitive UI, we can ensure ease of use of our application.
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Ieeepro techno solutions ieee embedded project solar poweringsrinivasanece7
The document discusses the use of solar power for water resource automation projects. It describes how solar energy systems can provide a cost-effective power alternative to grid connections for remote monitoring and control sites. The basic components of a simple automated canal site are outlined, including sensors, communications equipment, and actuators. Several prototypes developed by the Bureau of Reclamation for retrofitting solar-powered gate actuators onto existing structures are also described. Over 25 such automated gate structures have been reliably operated using solar power over the last 7 years. Monitoring system parameters in real-time can help identify problems so maintenance can be done proactively to minimize downtime.
The document proposes a unified framework for iris recognition that addresses challenges in unconstrained acquisition, robust matching, and privacy. It uses random projections and sparse representations to select good quality iris images, recognize iris patterns in a single step, and introduce cancelable templates for enhanced privacy without compromising security or recognition performance. Experimental results on public datasets demonstrate benefits of the proposed approach for robust and accurate iris recognition.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMHODECEDSIET
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
2. 46 IEEE JOURNAL ON EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2013
the structure and the main functions of a WSN platform for
these applications. Section V details the specifications and de-
sign solutions for the WSN nodes and field deployment devices.
Section VI presents the practical realization and operation of
the WSN nodes and the field deployment devices. Section VII
presents the application server design, structure, and operation.
Section VIII presents an effective sensor node field deployment
procedure. Section IX concludes the paper.
II. RELATED WORK
WSN environmental monitoring includes both indoor and
outdoor applications. The later can fall in the city deployment
category (e.g., for traffic, lighting, or pollution monitoring)
or the open nature category (e.g., chemical hazard, earth-
quake and flooding detection, volcano and habitat monitoring,
weather forecasting, precision agriculture). The reliability of
any outdoor deployment can be challenged by extreme climatic
conditions, but for the open nature the maintenance can be also
very difficult and costly.
These considerations make the open nature one of the
toughest application fields for large scale WSN environmental
monitoring, and the IoT applications requirements for low cost,
high service availability and low maintenance further increase
their design challenges.
To be cost-effective, the sensor nodes often operate on very
restricted energy reserves. Premature energy depletion can se-
verely limit the network service [4]–[7] and needs to be ad-
dressed considering the IoT application requirements for cost,
deployment, maintenance, and service availability. These be-
come even more important for monitoring applications in ex-
treme climatic environments, such as glaciers, permafrosts or
volcanoes [2], [8]–[12]. The understanding of such environ-
ments can considerably benefit from continuous long-term mon-
itoring, but their conditions emphasize the issues of node energy
management, mechanical and communication hardening, size,
weight, and deployment procedures.
Open nature deployments [13]–[17] and communication
protocol developments and experiments [7], [18] show that
WSN optimization for reliable operation is time-consuming
and costly. It hardly satisfies the IoT applications requirements
for long-term, low-cost and reliable service, unless reusable
hardware and software platforms [19]–[24] are available, in-
cluding flexible Internet-enabled servers [25]–[27] to collect
and process the field data for IoT applications.
This paper contributions of interest for researchers in the
WSN field can be summarized as: 1) detailed specifications for
a demanding WSN application for long-term environmental
monitoring that can be used to analyze the optimality of novel
WSN solutions, 2) specifications, design considerations, and
experimental results for platform components that suit the typ-
ical IoT application requirements of low cost, high reliability,
and long service time, 3) specifications and design consider-
ations for platform reusability for a wide range of distributed
event-based environmental monitoring applications, and 4) a
fast and configuration-free field deployment procedure suitable
for large scale IoT application deployments.
Fig. 1. Example of an ideal WSN deployment for in situ wildfire detection
applications.
III. IOT ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
WSN data acquisition for IoT environmental monitoring
applications is challenging, especially for open nature fields.
These may require large sensor numbers, low cost, high relia-
bility, and long maintenance-free operation. At the same time,
the nodes can be exposed to variable and extreme climatic
conditions, the deployment field may be costly and difficult to
reach, and the field devices weight, size, and ruggedness can
matter, e.g., if they are transported in backpacks.
Most of these requirements and conditions can be found in
the well-known application of wildfire monitoring using in situ
distributed temperature sensors and on-board data processing.
In its simplest event-driven form, each sensor node performs
periodic measurements of the surrounding air temperature and
sends alerts to surveillance personnel if they exceed a threshold.
Fig. 1 shows a typical deployment pattern of the sensor nodes
that achieves a good field coverage [28]. For a fast response
time, the coverage of even small areas requires a large number
of sensor nodes, making this application representative for cost,
networking and deployment issues of the event-driven high-
density IoT application class.
In the simplest star topology, the sensor nodes connect
directly to the gateways, and each gateway autonomously
connects to the server. Ideally, the field deployment procedure
ensures that each sensor node is received by more than one
gateway to avoid single points of failure of the network.
This application can be part of all three WSN categories [20]:
event-driven (as we have seen), time-driven (e.g., if the sensor
nodes periodically send the air temperature), and query-driven
(e.g., if the current temperature can be requested by the oper-
ator). This means that the infrastructure that supports the opera-
tion of this application can be reused for a wide class of similar
long-term environmental monitoring applications like:
• water level for lakes, streams, sewages;
• gas concentration in air for cities, laboratories, deposits;
• soil humidity and other characteristics;
• inclination for static structures (e.g., bridges, dams);
• position changes for, e.g., land slides;
• lighting conditions either as part of a combined sensing or
standalone, e.g., to detect intrusions in dark places;
• infrared radiation for heat (fire) or animal detection.
3. LAZARESCU: DESIGN OF A WSN PLATFORM FOR LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING FOR IOT APPLICATIONS 47
Since these and many related applications typically use fewer
sensor nodes, they are less demanding on the communication
channels (both in-field and with the server), and for sensor node
energy and cost. Consequently, the in situ wildfire detection ap-
plication can be used as reference for the design of a WSN plat-
form optimized for IoT environmental monitoring and the plat-
form should be easily reusable for a broad class of related ap-
plications.
Thus, the requirements of a WSN platform for IoT long-term
environmental monitoring can be defined as follows:
• low-cost, small sensor nodes with on-board processing,
self-testing, and error recovery capabilities;
• low-cost, small gateways (sinks) with self-testing, error re-
covery and remote update capabilities, and supporting sev-
eral types of long-range communication;
• sufficient gateway hardware and software resources to sup-
port specific application needs (e.g., local transducers, and
data storage and processing);
• detection of field events on-board the gateway to reduce
network traffic and energy consumption;
• field communication protocol efficiently supporting:
— from few sparse to a very large number of nodes;
— low data traffic in small packets;
• fast and reliable field node deployment procedure;
• remote configuration and update of field nodes;
• high availability of service of field nodes and servers, reli-
able data communication and storage at all levels;
• node ruggedization for long-term environment exposure;
• extensible server architecture for easy adaptation to dif-
ferent IoT application requirements;
• multiple-access channels to server data for both human op-
erators and automated processing;
• programmable multichannel alerts;
• automatic detection and report of WSN platform faults
(e.g., faulty sensor nodes) within hours, up to a day;
• 3–10 years of maintenance-free service.
These requirements will be used in Sections IV–VIII to de-
fine the requirements and analyze the design alternatives for the
nodes, networking, deployment procedure and operation of a
WSN platform suitable to support a significant set of IoT appli-
cations for environmental monitoring.
IV. PLATFORM STRUCTURE
The main purpose of the WSN platform is to provide the users
of the IoT application (human operators or computer systems)
an updated view of the events of interest in the field.
The tiered structure of the used platform (see Fig. 2) was
introduced by one of the first long-term outdoor WSN exper-
iments [13] and allows:
• a good functional separation of platform components for
optimization according to application requirements;
• a cloud-based field data access to bridge the latency-energy
trade-offs of the low power communication segments and
the ubiquitous and fast access to field data for end users
(either humans or IoT applications).
The sensor nodes are optimized for field data acquisition
using on-board transducers, processing, and communication to
gateways using short-range RF communications, either directly
Fig. 2. Tiered structure of the WSN platform.
or through other nodes. The gateways process, store, and
periodically send the field data to the application server using
long-range communication channels. The application server
provides long-term data storage, and interfaces for data access
and process by end users (either human or other applications).
The platform should be flexible to allow the removal of any
of its tiers to satisfy specific application needs. For instance,
the transducers may me installed on the gateways for stream
water level monitoring since the measurement points may be
spaced too far apart for the sensor node short-range communi-
cations. In the case of seismic reflection geological surveys, for
example, the sensor nodes may be required to connect directly to
an on-site processing server, bypassing the gateways. And when
the gateways can communicate directly with the end user, e.g.,
by an audible alarm, an application server may not be needed.
In addition to the elements described above, the platform can
include an installer device to assist the field operators to find a
suitable installation place for the platform nodes, reducing the
deployment cost and errors.
V. WSN NODE DESIGN
In this section will be presented the use of the specifications
defined in Section III to derive the specifications of the WSN
platform nodes, design space exploration, analysis of the pos-
sible solutions, and most important design decisions.
A. Sensor Node Design
Since IoT applications may require large numbers of sensor
nodes, their specifications are very important for application
performance, e.g., the in situ distributed wildfire detection se-
lected as reference for the reusable WSN platform design.
One of the most important requirements is the sensor node
cost reduction. Also, for low application cost the sensor nodes
should have a long, maintenance-free service time and support
a simple and reliable deployment procedure. Their physical size
and weight is also important, especially if they are transported
in backpacks for deployment.
Node energy source can influence several of its characteris-
tics. Batteries can provide a steady energy flow but limited in
time and may require costly maintenance operations for replace-
ment. Energy harvesting sources can provide potentially endless
energy but unpredictable in time, which may impact node op-
eration. Also, the requirements of these sources may increase
node, packaging and deployment costs.
Considering all these, the battery powered nodes may im-
prove application cost and reliability if their energy consump-
tion can be satisfied using a small battery that does not require
replacement during node lifetime.
4. 48 IEEE JOURNAL ON EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2013
The sensor node energy consumption can be divided into:
• RF communication, for data and network maintenance;
• processing, e.g., transducer data, self-checks, RTC;
• sensing, e.g., transducer supply, calibration;
• safety devices, e.g., watchdog timer, brown-out detector;
• power down energy required by the node components in
their lowest power consumption mode.
The last three (sensing, safety, and power down) depend mostly
on component selection, while the energy for RF communica-
tion and processing depend mostly on the communication pro-
tocol and the application, respectively.
For the selection of the communication protocol it should
be considered that the sensor nodes of event-driven environ-
mental monitoring applications typically need to periodically
report their health status and to notify alters of field events right
after their detection. Thus, the simplest form of sensor node
communication requirements can be implemented energy- and
cost-effective using a transmit-only radio device.
However, having no radio receive capabilities the sensor
nodes cannot form mesh networks and need to communicate di-
rectly with the receiver (gateway), in a star topology. They also
cannot receive acknowledgments or prevent packet conflicts.
Consequently, the protocol has to include redundant retrans-
missions at the source to keep the message loss acceptable for
the application.
Note the distinction between packet and message. A message
is the data to be conveyed and fits into a packet. Due to packet
loss, the same message can be repeatedly sent using different
packets. The message is received if at least one packet carrying
it is properly received and the receiver should discard message
duplicates.
To examine the redundancy necessary for such a network,
Fig. 3 shows the simulation results for the number of lost “alive”
messages by a gateway monitoring up to 5000 sensor nodes in a
star topology over one year time. Each node sends one heartbeat
packet per hour and the gateway considers that a node is missing
if no heartbeat message is received within a given timeout (the
graph includes plots for timeouts from 30 min to almost 6 h).
It can be seen that with enough transmission redundancy the
false node missing reports due to message loss can be kept very
low. For instance, if the application can accept a 6 h detection
delay of missing (faulty) nodes, then the false report rate (report
normally operating nodes as missing) due to message loss can
be around 1/year for a field with about 1000 sensor nodes.
More generally, a message loss rate of about 1/year can be as-
sumed for an RF space utilization, due to concurrent transmis-
sions, of about 8% packets s packet s
if the message is sent with a redundancy of 6 (the number of
packets that repeat the same message).
In this scenario, the duty cycle of the radio is very low, less
than 0.01% (1 packet of 0.28 s sent every hour). Note that this
assumes a long packet duration for a few bytes payload to min-
imize the receiver error rate (e.g., using 24 bytes preamble, 4
bytes sync word, 4 data bytes, 1200 Baud symbol rate, FEC and
CRC for the packet structure of the widely used Texas Instru-
ments CC1150 device, see Fig. 4).
If the application requires bidirectional sensor node commu-
nications, these need a transceiver. This increases their cost and
Fig. 3. Lost alive messages per year as function of node density and heartbeat
timeout (280 ms packets, transmission rate 1/h).
Fig. 4. TI CC1150 packet format (source: device data sheets).
energy consumption, which may translate to higher application
cost, reduced service time, and higher maintenance.
The receiver operates with a low duty cycle to reduce its
energy consumption. A widely used technique is low power
listening (LPL, that can achieve duty cycles of 1%–3% [29]).
Better duty cycles and channel utilization can be achieved using
synchronized networks [24], [30]. However, these require the
nodes to keep track of the time using a constantly running accu-
rate oscillator, which adds to node cost and energy consumption.
Moreover, the oscillator drift in extreme environmental condi-
tions may require more frequent synchronization messages or
repeated energy-intensive network re-registrations if time syn-
chronization is lost [9], [24]. Besides, the increased protocol
complexity requires more processor resources (e.g., program
and data memory, and processing), which further increase node
cost and energy consumption.
However, other mechanisms can be used to reduce the radio
energy consumption. For instance, the transmission power can
be lowered if the communication range decreases by using a
mesh topology instead of a star topology. It should also be con-
sidered the additional traffic per node due to peer message for-
5. LAZARESCU: DESIGN OF A WSN PLATFORM FOR LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING FOR IOT APPLICATIONS 49
warding. Also, message routing in large mesh networks can
lead to undesired dynamic effects, some difficult to foresee and
avoid, like bottlenecks or instabilities [17], [18]. These may re-
duce the network service reliability and require additional anal-
ysis and maintenance.
A receiver can also reduce packet collisions (e.g., using
clear channel assessment (CCA) techniques), thus lowering the
wasted energy due to message retransmissions. In this case,
higher reception error rates can also be accepted if they can be
compensated by an automatic retransmission of lost messages.
This also allows to shorten the messages (e.g., by increasing
the symbol rate, reducing the preamble, removing the FEC),
effectively reducing the energy spent per message.
B. Gateway Node Design
The main role of the gateways in a WSN application is to
collect, process, and forward to an internet-connected server the
field data received from the sensor nodes. They are fit with an
in-field communication interface for sensor nodes and an out-of-
field communication channel for the application server.
The long range communication, e.g., a GPRS modem (see
Fig. 2) can be responsible for most energy consumption of the
gateway. Although carefully optimized gateways can reach
several years of operation using large battery packs [2], they
are usually fit with energy harvesting devices (or mains power
supply) to reduce their cost and maintenance requirements.
The gateway node shapes and sizes are typically less con-
strained by the application compared to sensor nodes. However,
a small form factor generally helps gateway integration in a va-
riety of applications. Moreover, specific applications may re-
quire to connect transducers directly to gateways.
The field communication protocol is typically selected to op-
timize the sensor nodes, which are especially important for ap-
plications with large numbers of sensor nodes. The impact of the
field protocol on gateway resources (e.g., as processing, code
size, data memory) is usually less important. Also, the commu-
nication with the peer gateways may use a different channel to
prevent the congestion of the sensor node channel. This is espe-
cially useful when the MAC of the sensor nodes cannot improve
the communication reliability by resending the lost messages
(e.g., they have no receiving capabilities).
For star topology deployments in difficult propagation condi-
tions it may be necessary to extend the reachability of the gate-
ways using repeater nodes. Their basic operation is to forward
to the gateways in range all sensor node messages they receive,
so that the gateways can process them as if they were received
directly from the sensor nodes.
In an event-driven application, the gateways reduce the com-
munication with the server by processing the field data on-board
to detect significant events. For instance, they can autonomously
detect faulty nodes or analyze the data from several sensor nodes
for events that cannot be detected at single sensor node level.
The gateways usually allow to remotely change their param-
eters, processing flows, or update their entire program [31]–[34]
to improve their fit to (changing) application requirements. For a
high quality of service over long periods of time it is also impor-
tant to perform frequent self-checks and trigger error recovery
mechanisms in case of anomalies. At the same time, they should
Fig. 5. PCB of sensor nodes for environmental monitoring: (a) for in situ wild-
fire detection, (b) for mostly analog, and (c) for mostly digital applications
scale .
also preserve as much as possible the data collected from the
field across the error recovery procedures.
C. Deployment Device Design
This is typically an interactive handheld device used by the
field personnel to ensure a suitable WSN node deployment in
the field and to automatize the most time-consuming and error-
prone parts of the deployment procedure. This is particularly
important for applications with a large number of nodes (such
as the reference application), which are particularly sensitive to
deployment quality, time and cost.
Basically, it assists the operator in assessing if a node is op-
erational and can properly operate in an installation spot. For a
sensor node, this usually means assessing the suitability of its
connections with peer nodes (for mesh networks) or the gate-
ways/repeaters. For a gateway node it means assessing its con-
nectivity with peers, the long range connection coverage (e.g.,
GPRS coverage), and the energy harvesting suitability (e.g., the
proper orientation of the solar panels). The deployment device
should be able to connect with the sensor nodes and gateways
in range and display the data easy to see and understand in
open nature conditions and by operators that may have just basic
training in WSN operation.
Besides these basic functionalities, the deployment device
can also have localization capabilities (e.g., GPS) that can guide
the field operators to the predefined node deployment positions
and record the actual node deployment locations. It may also
have long range communication capabilities to upload the de-
ployment data to the application server.
VI. DEVICE IMPLEMENTATION
In the following are presented the most important implemen-
tation choices for the platform devices that are based on the re-
quirements in Sections III and V and are suitable for long-term
environmental monitoring IoT applications.
A. Sensor Node Implementation
Fig. 5 shows several sensor nodes designed for long-term en-
vironmental monitoring applications. The node for in situ wild-
fire monitoring [PCB in Fig. 5(a)] is optimized for cost since the
reference application typically requires a high number of nodes
6. 50 IEEE JOURNAL ON EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2013
Fig. 6. Sensor node: (a) firmware structure for reference application and (b)
operation state flow diagram.
(up to tens of thousands). The communication protocol is uni-
directional, not synchronized, as the node has no RF receive ca-
pability. As discussed in Section V-A, this solution minimizes
node cost and energy requirements, and can also simplify net-
work operation and maintenance.
The node microcontroller is an 8 bit ATMEL AVR ATtiny25
with 2 KB program and 128 bytes data memory, clocked by
its internal 8 MHz RC oscillator (to reduce the costs and en-
ergy consumption, since it does not need accurate timings). The
full custom 2 KB program has the structure in Fig. 6(a). A min-
imal operating system supports the operation of the main pro-
gram loop shown in Fig. 6(b) and provides the necessary inter-
face with the node hardware, support for node self-tests, and the
communication protocol.
The NTC transducer is connected as a voltage divider and the
main loop supplies it every second with a 0.02% duty cycle to
acquire a temperature reading using the microcontroller ADC.
Each sample updates the stored values of the instantaneous and
average temperature, and its variation speed and sign. All values
are then compared with specific patterns that are closely corre-
lated to wildfires. A specific alert message is sent if any of these
combinations is matched. To improve the continuity of service
and lower the maintenance requirements, the sensor program
periodically performs a suite of self-checks for hardware, soft-
ware and configuration errors. Any anomaly is signalled to gate-
ways, if possible.
The node average current consumption is about 4.7 ,
largely due to the microcontroller watchdog timer. Both the
microcontroller and the transducer are active with duty cycles
below 0.05%. The microcontroller consumes about 600
in active state and the transducer a few tens of microamperes,
depending on the temperature. The current consumption during
packet transmission does not exceed 30 mA.
The normal sensor node activity consists of sampling the tem-
perature every second, processing the sample, and sending one
0.28 s packet/h. In these conditions, its theoretical service time
exceeds 16 years on a 1/2 AA-size 1 Ah lithium battery. Sensors
used in deployments for wildfire monitoring applications with
up to 1000 sensor nodes, some since 2008, continue to operate
regularly without battery replacements.
In alert conditions (e.g., if a wildfire is detected in the refer-
ence application), the sensor node priority switches from low
energy consumption to propagating the alert quickly and reli-
ably. The alert messages are repeated for the whole duration of
the alert condition at random intervals between 1–3 s.
The sensor nodes use a channel in the 433 MHz ISM band
to achieve better propagation in forest environment and longer
range for a given RF power [35], [36], which is necessary to en-
sure a good gateway reachability in a star topology. A normal
mode helical antenna (NMHA, approximately )
emerged from field tests as a good compromise between cost,
size, and RF efficiency. It achieves a gain of about op-
erating in close proximity to the tree trunk and inside the node
plastic package.
The PCB is a double sided FR-4 with components mounted
on one side to reduce the costs. It is finished with conformal
coating to withstand long environment exposure. The sample in
Fig. 5(a) requires only the battery and the NMHA (co-linear to
the PCB, on the right side) to be operational. Fig. 12(a) shows
the node deployed on a tree in an application housed in a custom,
low-cost plastic case. The NTC is in good thermal contact with
the surrounding air through an aperture at the lower end of the
package, to prevent water infiltration.
Fig. 5(b) and (c) shows derivative sensor node platforms
designed for fast development of various environmental moni-
toring applications. Their structure is similar to the temperature
sensor in Fig. 5(a). The NMHA is mounted on the right, while
they can be plugged in application-specific boards using the
B2B connector on the left. The application board typically hosts
the application transducers, their interface circuitry, and the
power supply. Most microcontroller pins and the power supply
lines are routed to the connector so that it can be used to provide
processing power, I/O, and networking to the application board,
from which it requires only power supply.
These nodes use ATMEL AVR ATtiny261 microcontrollers
(Fig. 5(b), best suited for analog applications) and ATtiny48
(Fig. 5(c), with more digital interfaces). Both have up to 8 KB
program and 1 KB data memory. The protocol stack code
(largely the same as for the temperature sensor) takes less than
1 KB. Without the application board, the idle current con-
sumption is 4.8 average and up to 30 mA during message
transmission. As for the temperature sensor in Fig. 5(a), these
are consistent with the long service duration required by the IoT
applications. Various sensor nodes (for monitoring applications
for dam stability, water level, chemical gases, etc.) deployed
since 2009 either operate regularly on their original battery or
had lifetimes consistent with theoretical calculations similar to
the one above, adjusted for application-specific sensor energy
requirements and operating conditions (e.g., the temperature,
which can influence the battery capacity).
B. Gateway Node Implementation
Fig. 7(a) shows the gateway node double side FR-4 PCB with
components mounted on one side for lower costs.
It uses an ATMEL AVR ATmega1281 microcontroller with
128 KB program and 8 KB data memory on-board. In-field com-
munications are handled by two transceivers operating in the
433 MHz band, one for the sensor nodes (receive-only) and one
for the peer gateways, to reduce the congestion on both channels
7. LAZARESCU: DESIGN OF A WSN PLATFORM FOR LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING FOR IOT APPLICATIONS 51
Fig. 7. PCB of the gateway node for environmental monitoring: (a) top view
and (b) side view with the GPRS modem mounted on top scale .
as discussed in Sections V-A and V-B. For long range commu-
nications are provided connectors for a Cinterion TC63i GPRS
modem and its SIM. The power supply module on-board the
gateway can power the modem and includes three connectors:
one for an external 2 Ah Li-ion rechargeable battery, one for an
external 3.6 V lithium primary battery (for backup power), and
one for an optional external unregulated energy supply (e.g., a
solar panel) that is used to charge the rechargeable battery (if
connected). For proper operation, the gateway PCB in Fig. 7(b)
needs: one of the batteries, the modem and a SIM card, and the
antennas for the in-field and long-range communications.
The gateway continuously monitors the field channel for in-
coming sensor node messages using LPL to reduce the con-
sumption of the radio receiver. Inter-gateway communications
use an unscheduled protocol similar to that of the sensor nodes,
since the traffic on this channel largely mirrors the sensor node
traffic (the field messages are mirrored to the neighbor gateways
to avoid data loss in case of failures).
The small dimensions of the gateway (7.5 5.7 7 mm ex-
cluding batteries and antennas) help its integration with appli-
cation-specific cases or boards, and the field deployment. How-
ever, the application may embed the gateway in larger struc-
tures, e.g., at the bottom of a birdhouse as shown in Fig. 12(b),
with solar panels for energy harvesting on the roof.
Several mechanisms contribute to gateway high availability
of service required for IoT applications. The power manager
switches automatically to the primary battery whenever the
rechargeable battery is depleted, e.g., after extended periods
of low energy harvesting. The gateway software also imple-
ments several run-time self- and peer-assisted checks and
error recovery mechanisms for its most important functions.
Recovery procedures attempt to limit service disruptions and
avoid field maintenance operations, e.g., by using run-time
reconfigurations, by auto-resets that preserve the data collected
from field, or by automatically falling back to boot loader
Fig. 8. Gateway firmware block diagram.
mode for remote control or firmware update. Moreover, most
configuration parameters can also be remotely changed during
normal operation through remote procedure calls (RPC).
Fig. 8 shows the layers of the full custom software structure of
the gateway. The top-level operation is controlled by an appli-
cation coordinator. On the one hand, it accepts service requests
from various gateway tasks (e.g., as reaction to internal or ex-
ternal events, such as message queue nearly full or alert message
received from field sensors, respectively). On the other hand, the
coordinator triggers the execution of the tasks needed to satisfy
the service request currently served. Also, the coordinator im-
plements a priority-based service preemption allowing higher
priority service requests to interrupt and take over the gateway
control from any lower priority service requests currently being
served. This improves the gateway forwarding time of alert mes-
sages, for instance.
The application tasks implement specific functionalities for
the application, such as the message queue, field message han-
dling, sensor node status, field message postprocessing, RPC,
etc. They are implemented as round-robin scheduled co-routines
to spare data memory (to save space and costs the gateway uses
only the microcontroller internal RAM).
Manual configuration during sensor node deployment is not
necessary because the field node IDs are mapped to the state
structure using a memory-efficient associative array. The node
IDs are added as they become active in gateway range up to
1000 sensor nodes and 10 peer gateways, while obsolete or old
entries are automatically reused when needed.
The gateway average current consumption in normal opera-
tion is 1.6–1.8 mA, depending on sensor node and peer traffic.
It can rise to almost 500 mA during GPRS traffic in worst con-
nection conditions. Nevertheless, the gateway can operate for
about one year on a D-size lithium battery in some applica-
tions, e.g., when it receives field data from only one sensor
node and without peer gateways. In such cases, the average cur-
rent decreases to 1.2 mA with the peer radio turned off, which
amounts to h days in a year
time. From the 19 Ah charge of a D-size lithium battery (e.g.,
Tadiran TL-5930) this leaves for
GPRS traffic per year. At the maximum rate of 480 mA this
means more than 2’50” of GPRS data transfer daily, more than
enough to upload the data collected from one sensor.
In fact, gateways deployed inside sewages for level moni-
toring applications receiving data from one sensor node and no
peers operate for one year on 19 Ah batteries, which is con-
sistent with the theoretical calculations above. It is also worth
8. 52 IEEE JOURNAL ON EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2013
Fig. 9. Block structure of the deployment device.
noting that the gateway average current can be further reduced
by using the hardware SPI port to interface with the radio de-
vices and by programming the latter to autonomously scan for
incoming packets instead of the software-controlled LPL over a
software SPI port emulation used currently.
The gateways perform field data aggregation in a buffer
(up to about 400 messages in the microcontroller internal data
memory) to save energy and connect to the server either period-
ically (time-driven behavior), or when the buffer becomes full
or as soon and as long alert messages are received from field
(event-driven behavior). Since the sensor nodes transmit mostly
heartbeat messages that update their state on the gateway, the
message buffer fills gradually unless the gateway is configured
to collect variable field data (such as temperature readings) that
the sensor nodes piggyback on the heartbeat messages.
The repeater node uses the gateway design with unused hard-
ware and software components removed.
C. Field Deployment Device Implementation
The deployment device is made by a gateway device con-
nected through a serial port to an Openmoko smartphone
platform1 that runs a Linux operating system (see Fig. 9).
The gateway interfaces with the field nodes, while the field
data processing and the user interface (UI) are handled by an
application running on Openmoko Linux OS.
The Openmoko GPS can be used to assist field orientation of
the operator and node localization during deployment.
VII. APPLICATION SERVER
The main purpose of a WSN application server is to receive,
store, and provide access to field data. It bridges the low power
communication segments, with latency-energy trade-offs, and
the fast and ubiquitous end user field data access (by humans or
IoT applications).
The full custom server software has the structure shown in
Fig. 10. It provides interfaces for:
• field nodes (gateways);
• the operators and supervisors for each field;
• various alert channels;
• external access for other IoT systems.
1Available online: http://wiki.openmoko.org/
Each interface has a processing unit that includes, e.g., the pro-
tocol drivers. A central engine controls the server operation and
the access to the main database. It is written in Java, uses a
MySQL database and runs on a Linux operating system.
Two protocols are used to interface with the field nodes (gate-
ways) for an energy-efficient communication over unreliable
connections: normal and service (boot loader) operation.
The normal operation protocol acknowledges each event
upon reception for an incremental release of gateway memory
even for prematurely interrupted communications. Messages
and acknowledges can be sent asynchronously to improve the
utilization of high latency communication channels.
Time synchronization overhead is avoided at every commu-
nication level. The gateways timestamp the field messages and
events using their relative time and the server converts it to
real-world time using an offset calculated at the begin of the
gateway communication session.
The protocol for the boot loader mode is stateless, optimized
for large data block transfers and does not use acknowledges.
The gateway maintains the transfer state and incrementally
checks and builds the firmware image. An interrupted transfer
can also be resumed with minimal overhead.
IoT applications often produce large amounts of data that are
typically synthesized in synoptic views by the servers [25], [26]
(see Fig. 11). The server also uses high-availability techniques
for a high quality of service, e.g., a shadow server automatically
takes over the service if the main server fails.
The integration with IoT applications is supported by pro-
viding remote access to historical and real-time field data.
VIII. FIELD DEPLOYMENT PROCEDURE
The node deployment procedure of the WSN platform aims
to install each node in a field location both close to the applica-
tion-defined position and that ensures a good operation over its
lifetime. For example, Fig. 12 shows some typical deployments
for the reference application nodes.
Node deployment can be a complex, time-consuming,
error-prone, and manpower-intensive operation, especially for
applications with a large number of nodes. Thus, it needs to
be guided by automatic checks, to provide quick and easy to
understand feedback to field operators, and to avoid deploy-
ment-time sensor or gateway node configuration.
The check of node connectivity with the network is important
for star topologies and especially for transmit-only nodes (like
the reference application sensor nodes). These nodes cannot use
alternative message routing if the direct link with the gateway
is lost or becomes unstable.
The deployment procedure of the sensor node of the reusable
WSN platform takes into account the unidirectional communi-
cation capabilities of the sensor nodes. It is also designed to
avoid user input and deployment-time configurations on the one
hand, and a fast automatic assessment of the deployment posi-
tion and reliable concurrent neighbor node deployment on the
other hand.
The sensor nodes are temporarily switched to deployment op-
eration by activating their on-board REED switch [see Fig. 5(a)]
using a permanent magnet in the deployment device, as shown
9. LAZARESCU: DESIGN OF A WSN PLATFORM FOR LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING FOR IOT APPLICATIONS 53
Fig. 10. Application server interfaces.
Fig. 11. Display of the status of a 1000-sensor node field.
Fig. 12. Typical deployment for the reference application nodes: (a) sensor and
(b) gateway at the bottom of a birdhouse.
in Fig. 13(a). This one-bit near field communication (NFC) en-
sures a fast, reliable, input-free node selectivity. Its device ID is
collected by the deployment device that listens only for strong
deployment messages. These correspond to nodes within just a
few meters providing an effective insulation from collecting IDs
of nearby concurrent node deployments.
The gateways that receive the sensor node deployment mes-
sages report the link quality with the node [see Fig. 13(b)].
Fig. 13. Field deployment of sensor nodes: (a) use deployment device magnet
to set to deployment state, (b) display position suitability.
The deployment device collects all the data, and computes and
displays an assessment of deployment position suitability. No
gateway or node configuration is required and the procedure can
be repeated until a suitable deployment position is found.
IX. CONCLUSION
WSNs are traditionally considered key enablers for the IoT
paradigm. However, due to the widening variety of applications,
it is increasingly difficult to define common requirements for the
WSN nodes and platforms.
This paper addresses all phases of the practical development
from scratch of a full custom WSN platform for environmental
monitoring IoT applications. It starts by analysing the applica-
tion requirements and defining a set of specifications for the
platform. A real-life, demanding application is selected as ref-
erence to guide most of node and platform solution exploration
and the implementation decisions.
All aspects of the WSN platform are considered: platform
structure, flexibility and reusability, optimization of the sensor
and gateway nodes, optimization of the communication proto-
cols for both in-field and long range, error recovery from com-
munications and node operation, high availability of service at
all levels, application server reliability and the interfacing with
IoT applications. Of particular importance are IoT requirements
for low cost, fast deployment, and long unattended service time.
All platform components are implemented and support the
operation of a broad range of indoor and outdoor field deploy-
ments with several types of nodes built using the generic node
platforms presented. This demonstrates the flexibility of the
platform and of the solutions proposed.
The flow presented in this paper can be used to guide the
specification, optimization and development of WSN platforms
for other IoT application domains.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Most of the work was done in collaboration with and included
in the product lines of Minteos s.r.l.2, which contributed to func-
tional specification, experimentation, and production.
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Mihai T. Lazarescu received the Ph.D. degree from
Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy, in 1998.
His main activities include design of full custom
WSN platforms for environment monitoring, ASIC
design, hardware/software co-design and software
performance estimation for SoC, code synthesis
for reconfigurable architectures, and embedded
real-time Linux. He worked on several MEPI and
ESPRIT projects, was with Cadence Design Systems
working on the VCC hardware/software co-design
environment, and founded several startups. His
research interests include techniques for legacy program parallelization and
high-level synthesis of WSN applications. He is now Research Assistant with
the Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino,
Turin, Italy.