The document provides an overview of the hypothalamus and limbic system. It discusses how the hypothalamus helps regulate homeostasis and motivated behaviors through its connections to the limbic system and ability to control the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system. It also describes how the hypothalamus receives sensory inputs and controls outputs to maintain homeostasis, using temperature regulation as an example of its servo-control functions.
PSYCHOSES REVISION NOTES IN PSYCHIATRY TONY SCARIA
SCHIZOPHRENIA
FIRST RANK SYMPTOMS OF SCHNEIDER
ETIOLOGY OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
PATHOGENESIS
PSYCHIATRY REVISION NOTES BASED ON LECTURE NOTES AND HIGH YIELD FACTS BASED ON PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
ddescription of hypothalamus, boundaries of hypothalamus, relation of hypothalamus, subdivision of hypothalamus, medial and lateral zone of hypothalamus, preoptic area, tuberal area and mamillary area of hypothalamus, nuclei of hypothalamus and their functions, afferent pathways of hypothalamus, efferent pathways of hypothalamus, function of hypothalamus, hormones released by hypothalamus, clinical features with hypothalamic disorders
PSYCHOSES REVISION NOTES IN PSYCHIATRY TONY SCARIA
SCHIZOPHRENIA
FIRST RANK SYMPTOMS OF SCHNEIDER
ETIOLOGY OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
PATHOGENESIS
PSYCHIATRY REVISION NOTES BASED ON LECTURE NOTES AND HIGH YIELD FACTS BASED ON PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
ddescription of hypothalamus, boundaries of hypothalamus, relation of hypothalamus, subdivision of hypothalamus, medial and lateral zone of hypothalamus, preoptic area, tuberal area and mamillary area of hypothalamus, nuclei of hypothalamus and their functions, afferent pathways of hypothalamus, efferent pathways of hypothalamus, function of hypothalamus, hormones released by hypothalamus, clinical features with hypothalamic disorders
anatomy and physiology of temporal lobechaurasia028
this ppt talks about the detailed physiology of temporal lobe and explain in detail about the mechanism involved in speech, auditory response and episodic memory.
it also talks about the anatomy and functions of the temporal lobe.
The following slideshow contains the overview of blood supply of the brain viz. arterial and venous; Blood brain Barrier, Cavernous Sinus. It also has the various Neuropsychiatric manifestations related to alteration in the blood supply of brain.
anatomy and physiology of temporal lobechaurasia028
this ppt talks about the detailed physiology of temporal lobe and explain in detail about the mechanism involved in speech, auditory response and episodic memory.
it also talks about the anatomy and functions of the temporal lobe.
The following slideshow contains the overview of blood supply of the brain viz. arterial and venous; Blood brain Barrier, Cavernous Sinus. It also has the various Neuropsychiatric manifestations related to alteration in the blood supply of brain.
Describes the structure and functions of hypothalamus along with their clinical relevance. The physiological basis of hypothalamic regulations and functions are also described.
The active principles of the endocrine glands are called hormones.
Hormones are specific chemical substances discharged directly into the blood.
The blood distributes the hormones through out the body.
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
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2. Lecture I: The hypothalamus
• Overview of hypothalamus and limbic system purpose,
function and some examples of clinical conditions
mediated by hypothalamic and/or limbic system neural
circuitry.
• Brief overview of hypothalamus anatomy.
• Information flow into and out of the hypothalamus:
inputs, outputs and pathways.
• Servo-control systems as a model for hypothalamic
function.
• Two detailed examples of hypothalamic function:
– Temperature regulation
– Feeding behavior
3. Hypothalamus and Limbic System:
Homeostasis
• A major function of the nervous system is to
maintain homeostasis, or the stability of the
internal environment.
• The hypothalamus, which comprises less than
1% of the total volume of the brain, is intimately
connected to a number of structures within the
limbic system and brainstem.
• Together the hypothalamus and the limbic
system exert control on the endocrine system
the autonomic nervous system to maintain
homeostasis.
4. Hypothalamus and Limbic System:
Emotion and Motivated Behavior
• Emotions and motivated behavior are crucial for
survival:
– Emotional responses modulate the autonomic
nervous system to respond to threatening stimuli or
situations.
– Emotional responses are adaptive. If you are
prepared to deal with threatening stimuli, you are
more likely to survive and reproduce.
– Motivated behavior underlies feeding, sexual and
other behaviors integral to promoting survival and
reproduction.
– The hypothalamus and limbic system mediate these
behaviors.
5. Hypothalamus and Limbic System:
Clinical Context
• A large number of clinical conditions have
symptoms that arise from hypothalamic
and/or limbic system brain circuits.
• For example, regardless of medical or
dental specialty, all of you will encounter
patients who have one or more of the
following:
6. Hypothalamus and Limbic System:
Clinical Context (cont.)
– Fever
• Need to detect temperature changes and modulate the autonomic
nervous system to either retain or dissipate heat.
– Addiction
• Many recreational drugs work through neural pathways involved in
reward and motivated behavior that form an important part of limbic
system function.
– Anxiety Disorders
• Many anxiety disorders, such as Panic Disorder and Post-traumatic
stress disorder have physiological symptoms mediated by the
autonomic nervous system and by the limbic system.
– Obesity.
• Feeding behavior is in part controlled by the hypothalamus, and
interactions between limbic reward circuitry and the hypothalamus
are important to feeding behavior.
7. Hypothalamus: Integrative
Functions
• The hypothalamus helps regulate five basic physiological
needs:
1) Controls blood pressure and electrolyte (drinking and salt
appetite).
2) Regulates body temperature through influence both of the
autonomic nervous system and of brain circuits directing
motivated behavior (e.g. behavior that seeks a warmer or cooler
environment).
3) Regulates energy metabolism through influence on feeding,
digestion, and metabolic rate.
4) Regulates reproduction through hormonal control of mating,
pregnancy and lactation.
5) Directs responses to stress by influencing blood flow to specific
tissues, and by stimulating the secretion of adrenal stress
hormones.
8. Hypothalamus Anatomy
• Lines the walls of 3rd
ventricle, above the
pituitary.
• Divided into medial
and lateral regions by
the fornix, bundles of
fiber tracts that
connect the
hippocampus to the
mamillary bodies.
9. Hypothalamus Anatomy
• The hypothalamus is
limited at the anterior
by the optic chiasm
and anterior
commissure, and at
the posterior by the
mamillary bodies.
• The paraventricular
nucleus is of particular
importance, as it
controls both
endocrine and
autonomic processes.
10. The Paraventricular Nucleus
• Contains two types of cells:
– Parvocellular
• Medially, parvocellular
neurons secrete hypothalamic
releasing hormones, such as
CRH.
• Dorsally and ventrally,
neurons project to the
medulla and spinal cord to
exert autonomic control.
Some of these neurons
secrete oxytocin and
vasopressin, which can act as
neuromodulators.
– Magnocellular
• Two distinct populations
control endocrine function by
secreting oxytocin and
vasopressin directly into the
posterior pituitary.
11. What pathways deliver visceral
information to the hypothalamus?
• The nucleus of the
solitary tract receives
visceral information from
cranial nerves VII, IX, and
X.
• Besides directly
regulating certain
autonomic functions, the
nucleus of the solitary
tract relays information to
the parabrachial nucleus,
which projects to the
hypothalamus and other
limbic structures.
12. What pathways control autonomic
responses?
• Direct control of
autonomic preganglionic
neurons arises from the
hypothalamus, the
parabrachial nucleus, the
nucleus of the solitary
tract, and neurons in the
ventrolateral medulla.
• Indirect control of
autonomic responses
originates from the
cortex, amygdala , and
the periqueductal gray
matter.
13. Hypothalamus: Inputs and Outputs
Neural Output Hormonal
Output
Neural Input Controls the
autonomic
nervous system
(e.g. emotion)
Controls
release of
oxytocin for milk
lactaction
Hormonal Input Used for drives
and motivated
behavior
Controls
release of
vasopressin for
fluid regulation
14. Neural Input and Hormonal Output:
oxytocin release and lactation
• Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei contain
magnocellular neurons that secrete oxytocin into
the general circulation in the posterior pituitary.
• When a baby sucks on a mother’s nipples,
mechanoreceptors are stimulated. These
receptors activate neurons that project to the
magnocellular hypothalamic neurons, causing
those cells to fire brief bursts, releasing oxytocin.
• Oxytocin, in turn, increases contraction of
myoepithelial cells in the mamillary glands,
leading to milk ejection.
15. Vasopressin release: an example of humoral input
and humoral output
• Magnocellular neurons containing vasopressin
are sensitive to changes in blood tonicity,
releasing more vasopressin upon water loss.
Vasopressin increases water resorption in the
kidney.
• Transecting the neural inputs to the
hypothalamus does not disrupt the ability to
increase vasopressin release upon water loss.
This finding confirms that the signal used by
hypothalamic neurons is humoral, and not
neural, to modulate vasopressin release.
16. Hormonal input and Neural output:
Endocrine Control of Behavior
• Classic experiments by Geoffrey Harris demonstrated
how hormones may influence motivated behavior.
• Harris and colleagues implanted crystals of stilboestrol
esters in the hypothalamus of ovariectomized cats.
These cats had atrophic genitalia. Implantation of these
esters elicited full mating behavior from the cats. Thus
although the cats were anestrous from the point of view
of the endocrine system in the periphery, the animals
were estrous from the point of view of the CNS.
• These experiments established the concept that the
brain is a target for specific feedback action from
gonadal steroids, leading to modulations in motivated
behavior through neural circuits almost certainly
connected to the hypothalamus.
17. What hypothalamic pathways
influence endocrine function?
• The hypothalamus controls the
endocrine system by secreting
oxytocin and vasopressin into
the general circulation from
nerve terminals ending in the
posterior pituitary (5 in figure).
• The hypothalamus also
secretes regulatory hormones
into local portal circulation that
drains into the anterior pituitary
(3 and 4).
• Finally, some hypothalamic
neurons influence peptidergic
neurons, synapsing at those
neurons cell bodies or axon
terminals (1 and 2).
18. How do we know that regulatory factors travel
through the portal circulation to the pituitary?
• Geoffrey Harris was a famous neurobiologist
responsible for showing that that the
hypothalamus exerts control of the pituitary
gland.
• In the 1950s, Harris and colleagues carried out a
series of transplantation experiments.
– It had already been shown that endocrine glands (e.g.
testes, ovaries, adrenal cortex) can function in a
regulated manner when transplanted to a remote
location in the body.
– Harris showed that when the anterior pituitary was
transplanted away from its original site, it did not
function normally.
19. How do we know that regulatory factors travel
through the portal circulation to the pituitary (2)?
• Harris and colleagues then transplanted the anterior
pituitary back under the midline hypothalamus, near the
portal vessels. Normal endocrine function was restored,
and subsequent histology showed that the restoration of
function depended upon the successful revascularization
of the anterior pituitary by the primary capillary plexus of
portal vessels in the median eminence.
• These experiments provided definitive proof of the
functional importance of the portal vascular system in
connecting hypothalamic regulation to anterior pituitary
function.
20. Homeostatic processes: servo-
control systems
• 3 main mechanisms in
the hypothalamus make
its function analogous to
servo-control systems
– Receives sensory
information from external
body
– Compares sensory
information with biological
set points.
– Adjusts an array of
autonomic, endocrine and
behavioral responses
aimed at maintaining
homeostasis
21. Temperature regulation is a good example of
a hypothalamic servo-control system
• To regulate temperature, integration of autonomic,
endocrine, and skelatomotor systems must occur. The
hypothalamus is positioned anatomically to accomplish
this control and integration.
• The set point for the system is normal body temperature.
• The hypothalamus contains “feedback detectors” that
collect information about body temperature. These
come from two sources:
– Peripheral receptors transmit information through temperature
pathways to the CNS.
– Central receptors are located mainly in the anterior
hypothalamus. Temperature-sensitive neurons in the
hypothalamus modulate their activity in relation to local
temperature (blood temperature).
22. Distinct regions of the hypothalamus mediate heat
dissipation and heat conservation
• The anterior
hypothalamus (preoptic
area) mediates
decreases in heat.
• Lesions cause:
– Chronic hyperthermia
• Electrical stimulation
causes:
– Dilation of blood vessels in
the skin
– Panting
– Suppression of shivering
23. Distinct regions of the hypothalamus mediate heat
dissipation and heat conservation (2)
• The posterior
hypothalamus mediates
heat conservation.
• Lesions cause:
– Hypothermia if an animal is
placed in a cold
environment.
• Microstimulation causes:
– Shivering
– Constriction of blood
vessels in the skin
24. Endocrine responses to
temperature change
• Long-term exposure to cold can lead to
increased hypothalamic secretion of
thyrotropin-releasing hormone.
• This results in increased release of
thyroxine, which in turns increases body
heat by increasing tissue metabolism.
25. Behavioral responses to
temperature change
• Rats can be trained to press a button for
cool air if placed in a hot environment.
After training, if in a cool environment, the
rat will not push the button.
• If you warm the anterior hypothalamus
locally by perfusing it with warm water
locally, the rat will push the button for cool
air, even though it is already in a cool
environment.
26. The hypothalamus integrates peripheral and
central temperature information
• Increases in room
temperature lead to an
increased in button
pushing (response rate)
to receive cool air.
• Increases and decreases
in hypothalamic
temperature also
modulate response rate
in a predictable manner.
• The behavioral response
rate appears to sum
inputs from the periphery
and the hypothalamus.
27. Feeding behavior can also resemble a servo-
control mechanism
• Animals tend to adjust
their food intake to
achieve a normal body
weight.
• Curve b = control rats on
a normal diet.
• Curve a = rats force fed
for 15 days.
• Curve c = rats on a
restricted diet for 15 days.
• All rats returned to their
normal body weight after
either force feeding or
restriction.
28. Feeding behavior can also resemble a
servo-control mechanism (2)
• These data demonstrate
a biological set point for
weight control.
• But…in humans, we
know that:
– Weight set point can vary
by individual.
– Weight set point can vary
depending upon a variety
of factors, including stress,
taste, emotions, social
factors, convenience,
exercise and other
environmental and genetic
factors.
29. How does the hypothalamus contribute to the
control of food intake?
• Early studies of the
hypothalamus
demonstrated that
lesions of the
ventromedial
hypothalamus
produced
hyperphagia and
obesity.
• Lesions of the
lateral
hypothalamus
produced aphagia,
leading to
starvation.
Stimulation
produced the
opposite effect of
these lesions.
• These findings lead
to the theory that
the hypothalamus
contains a “feeding
center” and a
“satiety center”.
30. How does the hypothalamus contribute to
the control of food intake? (2)
• But…subsequent work provided the insight that the
results from lesion studies may have been due to
damage of fibers of passage rather than due to loss of
cell bodies in distinct parts of the hypothalamus.
• In particular, hypothalamus lesions may damage fibers
of:
– the trigeminal system which affect sensory processing important
for feeding
– Dopaminergic neurons projecting from the substantia nigra to the
striatum, as wells as those that project from the ventral
tegmental area to innervate parts of the limbic system.
Dopaminergic neurons are thought to be important for reward
processing and arousal, and therefore may affect feeding
behavior.
31. How does the hypothalamus contribute to
the control of food intake? (3)
• The modern view of energy homeostasis now proposes that discrete
neuronal pathways generate integrated responses to afferent input
related to energy storage. The hypothalamus plays a prominent role
in this integration.
• The hypothalamus is sensitive to adiposity signals supplied by the
hormones leptin and insulin, secreted by fat cells and the pancrease
respectively.
• Insulin and leptin both modulate neural activity in the arcuate
nucleus of the hypothalamus, which transduces afferent hormonal
signals into a neural response.
• Leptin may also play a role in establishing a biological set point for
body weight by modifying the strength and number of synapses onto
arcuate neurons and by inducing projections from the arcuate
nucleus to the PVN during development.
32. A model for energy homeostasis
• Adiposity signals modulate anabolic and
catabolic pathways in the CNS.
• These pathways control food intake and energy
expenditure by influencing behavior, autonomic
activity, and metabolic rate.
• Satiety signals terminate feeding, and energy
balance and fat storage mechanisms control the
amounts of leptin and insulin circulating in the
blood (adiposity signals).
33. A model for energy homeostasis
• Two sets of
signals are
important for
modulating food
intake in
response to body
adiposity and
food intake:
– Satiety signals
• Short-term
control
– Adiposity signals
• Long-term
control
34. How do satiety signals control meal
size?
• Meal size tends to be more
biologically controlled than
meal timing, that depends
on numerous emotional
and social factors.
• Satiety signals are probably
initially processed by the
nucleus of the solitary tract
(NTS), which receives
afferent input from the
vagus nerve and from
afferents passing into the
spinal cord from the upper
gastrointestinal tract.
• Adiposity signals can
modulate the response to
satiety signals, either
indirectly through the
hypothalamic pathways we
have discussed, or directly,
since the NTS does have
some leptin receptors.
35. Hypothalamic neuropeptides that
influence caloric homeostasis
• Two adiposity signals, insulin
and leptin, are produced in
the periphery and travel
through the blood-brain
barrier to influence neurons in
the arcuate nucleus.
• Some arcuate neurons
synthesize and release
neuropeptide Y (NPY) and
agouti-related protein (AgRP)
and are inhibited by adiposity
signals.
• Other arcuate neurons
synthesize and release a-
melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (a-MSH) and
cocaine-amphetamine-related
transcript (CART) and are
stimulated by adiposity
signals.
36. Hypothalamic neuropeptides that
influence caloric homeostasis (2)
• NPY/AgRP neurons inhibit the
paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and
stimulate the lateral hypothalamic
area (LHA). a-MSH/CART neurons
do the opposite.
• The PVN has a net catabolic
action, releasing CRH and oxytocin
and thereby decreasing food intake
and increasing energy expenditure.
Plasma levels of oxytocin, which
we previously discussed with
reference to the milk let-down
reflex, have also been correlated
with food intake in male and female
rats.
• The LHA has a net anabolic action,
releasing two additional
neuropeptides, orexin A and
melanin-concentrating hormone
(MCH), both of which stimulate
food intake.
37. Leptin deficiency disrupts the normal developmental
pattern of projections from the arcuate nucleus to PVN in
mice
Bouret et al., (2004)
Science 304:108-110
38. Leptin treatment during development can rescue
projections from the arcuate nucleus to PVN
Bouret et al., (2004)
Science 304:108-110
40. Summary of Hypothalamus Lecture
• Reviewed basic hypothalamus anatomy.
• Reviewed basic hypothalamic function:
– Hormonal and neural inputs and outputs
– Control of autonomic, endocrine, and behavior to maintain homeostasis
• Temperature regulation is an excellent example of a servo-control mechanism
operating in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is sensitive both to hypothalamic
and peripheral temperature, and it mediates changes in autonomic, endocrine and
behavioral responses in order to maintain homeostasis.
• Feeding behavior is a less good example of a servo-control system, in part because
of variable biological set points depending upon numerous factors. Nonetheless,
feeding behavior appears to be influenced by short-term satiety signals, and long-
term adiposity signals. Adiposity signals influence catabolic and anabolic pathways in
the hypothalamus that can control a variety of autonomic, endocrine, and behavioral
functions to maintain homeostasis. Emerging evidence implicates leptin as playing
an important role in modulating the neurocircuity of the hypothalamus to influence
feeding behavior.
• Fever and obesity are two major clinical conditions that are mediated by these neural
pathways.