Water is hydrosphere is made up of all the water on Earth. This includes all of the rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, groundwater, polar ice caps, glaciers and moisture in the air (like rain and snow). The hydrosphere is found on the surface of Earth, but also extends down several miles below, as well as several miles up into the atmosphere. So, there is a need for study of water as a scarce resource.
WHAT IS HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
SYSTEM APPROACH IN HYDROLOGY
HYDROLOGIC INPUT & OUTPUT
VARIATION IN HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
COMPONENTS
EVAPORATION
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
PRECIPITATION
INTERCEPTION
INFILTRATION
GROUND WATER
RUN-OFF
HUMAN IMPACT
EARTH SURFACE
CLIMATE CHANGE
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
MULTI PURPOSE PROJECTS
WATER WITHDRAWAL
MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL
Hydrologic Cycle is also called as Water Cycle. It basically deals with transformation of water in different forms starting from gaseous stage (water vapor) to liquid state (water on earth's surface), and water inside soil as underground water.and again back to gaseous stage. The cycle has no starting or end.
It includes the definition, properties, classification of groundwater with appropriate examples and figures in details. It also deals about the formation of groundwater. The properties of aquifers (all of 7) are described here in details with figures and mathematical terms.
Hydrologic Cycle is also called as Water Cycle. It basically deals with transformation of water in different forms starting from gaseous stage (water vapor) to liquid state (water on earth's surface), and water inside soil as underground water.and again back to gaseous stage. The cycle has no starting or end.
It includes the definition, properties, classification of groundwater with appropriate examples and figures in details. It also deals about the formation of groundwater. The properties of aquifers (all of 7) are described here in details with figures and mathematical terms.
Hydrological cycle- Meteorological measurements – Requirements, types and forms of Precipitation-Rain Gauges-Spatial analysis of rainfall data using Thiessen and Isohyetal methods Infiltration-Infiltration Index-Interception-Evaporation, Watershed, catchment and basin - Catchment characteristics - factors affecting runoff – Runoff estimation using empirical
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing rock. Water-bearing rocks are permeable, meaning that they have openings that liquids and gases can pass through. Sedimentary rock such as sandstone, as well as sand and gravel, are examples of water-bearing rock.
Fluvial Morphology handbook for students.
Contents are: definition, scope, importance of Fluvial Morphology, sediment load, channel pattern and process, role sediment to build delta, Reynolds number, Froude Number, channel pattern of Tista and Jamuna River, causes and consequences of flood, benefit of flood, flood and floodplain, hydraulic geometry, water resource management (in Bangladesh), hydrograph, origin and development of river, tributary and distributary and many more.
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
Stream flow representing the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle is the most important basic data for hydrologic studies. Runoff is generated by rainstorms. Its occurrence and quantity are dependent on the characteristics of the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. This module highlights about runoff components of the hydrological cycle.
Short power point made by AS/A Level students with the aim of explaining Storm Hydrographs and the foundations of the Drainage Basin Hydrological Cycle.
Runoff is that portion of the rainfall or irrigation water which leaves a field either as surface or as subsurface flow. When rainfall intensity reaching the soil surface is less than the infiltration capacity, all the water is absorbed in to the soil. As rain continues, soil becomes saturated and infiltration capacity is reduced, shallow depression begins to fill with water, then the overland flow starts as runoff.
Hydrological cycle- Meteorological measurements – Requirements, types and forms of Precipitation-Rain Gauges-Spatial analysis of rainfall data using Thiessen and Isohyetal methods Infiltration-Infiltration Index-Interception-Evaporation, Watershed, catchment and basin - Catchment characteristics - factors affecting runoff – Runoff estimation using empirical
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing rock. Water-bearing rocks are permeable, meaning that they have openings that liquids and gases can pass through. Sedimentary rock such as sandstone, as well as sand and gravel, are examples of water-bearing rock.
Fluvial Morphology handbook for students.
Contents are: definition, scope, importance of Fluvial Morphology, sediment load, channel pattern and process, role sediment to build delta, Reynolds number, Froude Number, channel pattern of Tista and Jamuna River, causes and consequences of flood, benefit of flood, flood and floodplain, hydraulic geometry, water resource management (in Bangladesh), hydrograph, origin and development of river, tributary and distributary and many more.
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
Stream flow representing the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle is the most important basic data for hydrologic studies. Runoff is generated by rainstorms. Its occurrence and quantity are dependent on the characteristics of the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. This module highlights about runoff components of the hydrological cycle.
Short power point made by AS/A Level students with the aim of explaining Storm Hydrographs and the foundations of the Drainage Basin Hydrological Cycle.
Runoff is that portion of the rainfall or irrigation water which leaves a field either as surface or as subsurface flow. When rainfall intensity reaching the soil surface is less than the infiltration capacity, all the water is absorbed in to the soil. As rain continues, soil becomes saturated and infiltration capacity is reduced, shallow depression begins to fill with water, then the overland flow starts as runoff.
The rates of movement of water and the quantities involved the cyclic processes are the major aspects involved in the hydrological sciences. There is an endless circulation of water among all the spheres of the earth. It is popularly known as the hydrologic cycle. It is necessary to learn about the hydrologic cycle, when we intend analyse the water resources of the region and the world.
Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth.
Liquid water is converted to gaseous water (water vapor) by the process of evaporation. Water travels from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere via evaporation. Evaporation results from the dissolution of the bonds holding the water molecules together as a result of heat energy.
Migration Profile of Odisha with focus on BhubaneswarKamlesh Kumar
Migration is one the most important demographic component to determine the size, growth and structure of population of a particular region, besides fertility and mortality. For a large country like India, the study of movement of population in different parts of the country helps in understanding the dynamics of the society and societal change better. Bhubaneswar is one of the magnets for migrants in east India attributing to its exponential growth rates. This is an attempt to map the migration pattern in the city and the state.
Population Projection of Khordha District, ODISHA 2021-51Kamlesh Kumar
Work is based on Walter Isard's methods in a simplistic manner.
1. ARITHMATICAL INCREASE METHOD OF PROJECTION
2. GEOMETRIC INCREASE METHOD
3. INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD
DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF CONTINENTAL ODISHAKamlesh Kumar
Although the state is endowed with vast natural resources it has remained on the bottom of the developmental chart of the nation. With such a reserve of natural resources and human resource potential, it is like a hibernating beast which must awake for good. Stealing the limelight of the most favourable smart city, the capital is growing like never before along with a few more cities. Yet the state remains mostly rural and lagging in most aspects except for the coastal regions. My analysis is that the state has not been given its due attention in planning which is the reason for its present backwardness.
‘Fashion’ is a notoriously difficult term to pin down, and it is extremely doubtful whether it is possible to come up with necessary and sufficient conditions for something justifiably to be called ‘fashionable’. Generally speaking, we can distinguish between two main categories in our notion of fashion: one that fashion refers to clothing or that fashion is a general mechanism, logic or ideology that, among other things, applies to the area of clothing.
Adam Smith , who was among the first philosophers to give fashion a central role in his anthropology, claims that fashion applies first and foremost to areas in which taste is
a central concept. This applies in particular to clothes and furniture, but also to music, poetry and architecture. Immanuel Kant provides a description of fashion that focuses on general changes in human lifestyles: ‘All fashions are, by their very concept, mutable ways of living.’
However, trends die quickly and with that comes waste. Clothing produced by fast fashion brands are oftentimes made from cheap materials, like polyester and acrylic, and not built to last: The average American throws away 80 pounds of clothing every year. We’ve been conditioned to believe that buying a garment and wearing it once is justifiable. It’s not. Due to the growing demand in the fast fashion industry, we see a vast overproduction of clothing; for example, the Copenhagen Fashion Summit reports that fashion is responsible for 92 million tons of solid waste dumped in landfills each year. This cultural shift on how we consume clothing is leaving a huge mark on the planet. Fashion has become much more than representation and being covered.
COMMUNAL HARMONY: PUNJABI & TIBETANS IN DELHIKamlesh Kumar
LANDSCAPE AS TEXT
Delhi, the majestic, cosmopolitan, sprawling capital of the nation viewed as one of the global nodes bustling with life in haste. It has maintained its identity as a pluralistic amalgamation with myriads of ethno-religious groups and minority communities. Such is the very famous, our own ‘little Tibet’- Majnu Ka Tila situated at a stone’s throw from the Delhi University North Campus. Officially known as Aruna Nagar Colony is the universal gathering place
for Tibetans living around Delhi and a transit point for the people of the trans-Himalayan range and conversely a gateway to Tibet for the Indians and foreign tourists alike as the capital city enjoys a status of a flourishing educational and political hub.
Tall buildings on either side make the narrow alley so dark it’s as if the sun never makes it here. Shops on either side sell only exotic Tibetan jewellery, Buddhist artefacts and crockery. In this labyrinth of a colony, the stalls are full of copies of branded shoes and clothes, reflecting the latest in fashion trends across Asia. Many of the tiny outlets sell Buddhist curios and Tibetan literature. Ahead, the alley opens into a bright courtyard facing the monastery. Old ladies sit in the sun, making fresh momos and laphing, pancakes rolled with chilli paste. Besides MKT is a Foodie's paradise, the eateries here are not only popular for its momos, but one can also enjoy authentic Tibetan, Chinese and Korean delicacies along with the yummiest of the English pastries.
Majnu Ka Tila not only is limited to Tibetan community but constituted by the Punjabi community as well which has a historical context.
The area provides a microcosm of diversified India where there is invisible transition and diffusion of identity, culture of distinct communities and Indianisation of Tibetan lifestyle.
For instance, many Tibetans who cannot afford the rising rents of the Tibetan enclave (due to hotels and tourist activities) are forced to live in the Punjabi Basti where renting an apartment is cheaper comparatively. Living in Punjabi zone is seen influencing a cultural and identity loss. To diffuse with the Punjabi population is perceived as a risk “of identity loss”, and forgetting your Tibetan culture. These frontiers are mental, social and religious. Nonetheless, the ethnic groups interacting and sharing a space is a matter of pride as community harmony.
An overlay operation is much more than a simple merging of linework; all the attributes of the features taking part in the overlay are carried through. In general, there are two methods for performing overlay analysis—feature overlay (overlaying points, lines, or polygons) and raster overlay. Some types of overlay analysis lend themselves to one or the other of these methods. Overlay analysis to find locations meeting certain criteria is often best done using raster overlay (although you can do it with feature data). Of course, this also depends on whether your data is already stored as features or raster. It may be worthwhile to convert the data from one format to the other to perform the analysis.
Weighted Overlay
Overlays several raster files using a common measurement scale and weights each according to its importance.
The weighted overlay table allows the calculation of a multiple criteria analysis between several raster files.
Raster- The raster of the criteria being weighted.
Influence- The influence of the raster compared to the other criteria as a percentage of 100.
Field- The field of the criteria raster to use for weighting.
Remap- The scaled weights for the criterion.
In addition to numerical values for the scaled weights in Remap, the following options are available:
Restricted- Assigns the restricted value (the minimum value of the evaluation scale set, minus one) to cells in the output, regardless of whether other input raster files have a different scale value set for that cell.
No data - Assigns No Data to cells in the output, regardless of whether other input raster files have a different scale value set for that cell.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
In the context of remote sensing, change detection refers to the process of identifying differences in the state of land features by observing them at different times. This process can be accomplished either manually (i.e., by hand) or with the aid of remote sensing software. Manual interpretation of change from satellite images or aerial photos involves an observer or analyst defining areas of interest and comparing them between images from two dates. This may be accomplished either on-screen (such as in a GIS) or on paper. When analyzing aerial photographs, a stereoscope which allows for two spatially-overlapping photos to be displayed in 3D, can aid photo interpretation. Manual image interpretation works well when assessing change between discrete classes (forest openings, land use and land cover maps) or when changes are large (e.g., heavy mechanized maneuver damage, engineering training impacts). Manual image interpretation is also an option when trying to determine change using images or photos from different sources (comparing historic aerial photographs to current satellite imagery).
Automated methods of remote sensing change detection usually are of two forms: post-classification change detection and image differencing using band ratios. In post-classification change detection, the images from each time period are classified using the same classification scheme into a number of discrete categories like land cover types. The two (or more) classifications are compared and the area that is classified the same or different is tallied. With image differencing, a band ratio such as NDVI is constructed from each input image, and the difference is taken between the band ratios of different times. In the case of differencing NDVI images, positive output values may indicate an increase in vegetation, negative values a decrease in vegetation, and values near zero no change. With either post-classification or image differencing change detection, it is necessary to specify a threshold below which differences between the two images is considered to be non-significant. The specification of thresholds is critical to the results of change detection analysis and usually must be found through an iterative process.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Accuracy assessment is an important part of any classification project. It compares the classified image to another data source that is considered to be accurate or ground truth data. Ground truth can be collected in the field; however, this is time consuming and expensive. Ground truth data can also be derived from interpreting high-resolution imagery, existing classified imagery, or GIS data layers.
The most common way to assess the accuracy of a classified map is to create a set of random points from the ground truth data and compare that to the classified data in a confusion matrix. Although this is a two-step process, you may need to compare the results of different classification methods or training sites, or you may not have ground truth data and are relying on the same imagery that you used to create the classification. To accommodate these other workflows, this process uses three geoprocessing tools: Create Accuracy Assessment Points, Update Accuracy Assessment Points, and Compute Confusion Matrix.
Thresholding
Thresholding is the process of identifying the pixels in a classified image that are the most likely to be classified incorrectly. These pixels are put into another class (usually class 0). These pixels are identified statistically, based upon the distance measures
that were used in the classification decision rule.
Accuracy Assessment : Error Matrix
Accuracy assessment is a general term for comparing the classification to geographical data that are assumed
to be true, in order to determine the accuracy of the classification process. Usually, the assumed-true data are derived from ground truth data. It is usually not practical to ground truth or otherwise test every pixel of a classified image. Therefore, a set of reference pixels is usually used. Reference pixels are points on the classified image for which actual data are (or will be) known. The reference pixels are randomly selected.
Overall accuracy: Overall accuracy is used to indicate the accuracy of whole classification (i.e. number of correctly classifier pixels divided by the total number of pixels in the error matrix)
User’s accuracy(commission error): User’s accuracy is regarded as the probability that a pixel classified on map actually represents that
class on the ground or reference data
Producer’s accuracy(omission error): Producer’s accuracy represents the probability of reference pixel being correctly classified
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
The objective of image classification is to classify each pixel into only one class (crisp or hard classification) or to associate the pixel with many classes (fuzzy or soft classification). The classification techniques may be categorized either on the basis of training process (supervised and unsupervised) or on the basis of theoretical model (parametric and non-parametric).
Unsupervised classification is where the groupings of pixels with common characteristics are based on the software analysis of an image without the user providing sample classes. The computer uses techniques to determine which pixels are related and groups them into classes. The user can specify which algorism the software will use and the desired number of output classes but otherwise does not aid in the classification process. However, the user must have knowledge of the area being classified when the groupings of pixels with common characteristics produced by the computer have to be related to actual features on the ground (such as waterbodies, developed areas, forests, etc.).
Supervised classification is based on the idea that a user can select sample pixels in an image that are representative of specific classes and then direct the image processing software to use these training sites as references for the classification of all other pixels in the image. Input classes are selected based on the knowledge of the user. The user also sets the bounds for how similar other pixels must be to group them together. These bounds are often set based on the spectral characteristics of the input classes (AOI), plus or minus a certain increment (often based on “brightness” or strength of reflection in specific spectral bands). The user also designates the number of classes that the image is classified into.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Interpolation is the process of using points with known values to estimate values at other unknown points. It can be used to predict unknown values for any geographic point data, such as elevation, rainfall, noise levels, atmospheric components and so on.
The Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) assumes each input point to have a local influence that diminishes with distance. It assumes that closer things are more alike than those that are farther apart. It weights the points closer to the processing cell greater than those further away. A specified number of points, or all points within a specified radius can be used to determine the output value of each location. To predict a value for any unmeasured location, IDW will use the measured values surrounding the prediction location. Those measured values closest to the prediction location will have more influence on the predicted value than those farther away.
Spline estimates values using a mathematical function that minimizes overall surface curvature, resulting in a smooth surface that passes exactly through the input points. This method is best for gently varying surfaces, such as elevation, water table heights, or pollution concentrations. A Regularized method creates a smooth, gradually changing surface with values that may lie outside the sample data range.
Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that considers both the distance and the degree of variation between known data points when estimating values in unknown areas. Kriging assumes that the distance or direction between sample points reflects a spatial correlation that can be used to explain variation in the surface. The Kriging tool fits a mathematical function to a specified number of points, or all points within a specified radius, to determine the output value for each location. Kriging is a multistep process; it includes exploratory statistical analysis of the data, variogram modeling, creating the surface, and (optionally) exploring a variance surface. Kriging is most appropriate when you know there is a spatially correlated distance or directional bias in the data. It is often used in soil science and geology.
Trend is a statistical method that finds the surface that fits the sample points using a least-square regression fit. It fits one polynomial equation to the entire surface. This results in a surface that minimizes surface variance in relation to the input values. The surface is constructed so that for every input point, the total of the differences between the actual values and the estimated values (i.e., the variance) will be as small as possible.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Raster data is commonly obtained by scanning maps or collecting aerial photographs and satellite images. Scanned map datasets don't normally contain spatial reference information (either embedded in the file or as a separate file). With aerial photography and satellite imagery, sometimes the location information delivered with them is inadequate, and the data does not align properly with other data one has. Thus, to use some raster datasets in conjunction with other spatial data, we need to align or georeference them to a map coordinate system. A map coordinate system is defined using a map projection (a method by which the curved surface of the earth is portrayed on a flat surface). Georeferencing a raster data defines its location using map coordinates and assigns the coordinate system of the data frame. Georeferencing raster data allows it to be viewed, queried, and analyzed with other geographic data.
Generally, we georeference raster data using existing spatial data (target data)—such as georeferenced rasters or a vector feature class—that resides in the desired map coordinate system. The process involves identifying a series of ground control points—known x,y coordinates—that link locations on the raster dataset with locations in the spatially referenced data (target data). Control points are locations that can be accurately identified on the raster dataset and in real-world coordinates. Many different types of features can be used as identifiable locations, such as road or stream intersections, the mouth of a stream, rock outcrops, the end of a jetty of land, the corner of an established field, street corners, or the intersection of two hedgerows. The control points are used to build a polynomial transformation that will shift the raster dataset from its existing location to the spatially correct location. The connection between one control point on the raster dataset (the from point) and the corresponding control point on the aligned target data (the to point) is a link.
Finally, the georeferenced raster file can be exported for further usage.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
With increasing use of remote sensing, the need for crispier, accurate and enhanced precision has deemed to the improvement in the spectral and spatial resolution of remotely sensed imagery. For most of the systems, panchromatic images typically have higher resolution, while multispectral images offer information in several spectral channels. Resolution merge (also called pan-sharpening) allows us to combine advantages of both kinds of images by merging them into one.
The resolution merge or pan sharpening is the technique used to obtain high resolution multi-spectral images. The color information is collected from the coarse resolution satellite data and the intensity from the high resolution satellite data.
The main constraint is to preserve the spectral information for aspects like land use. Saving theimage from distortion of the spectral characteristics is important in the merged dataset.
The most common techniques for spatial enhancement of low-resolution imagery combining high and low resolution data can be used are: Intensity-Hue-Saturation, Principal Component, Multiplicative and Brovey Transform.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Remote Sensing: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)Kamlesh Kumar
The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is a numerical indicator that uses the visible and near-infrared (NIR) bands of the electromagnetic spectrum to analyze whether the target (image) being observed contains green vegetation or not. Healthy vegetation (chlorophyll) reflects more near-infrared (NIR) and green light compared to other wavelengths. But it absorbs more red and blue light. This is why our eyes see vegetation as the colour green. If we could see near-infrared, then it would be strong for vegetation too.
It is basically measured through the use of Intensity, Hue and saturation of an image and through pixels as well.
The density of vegetation (NDVI) at a certain point on the image is equal to the difference in the intensities of reflected light in the red and infrared range divided by the sum of these intensities.
푁퐷푉퐼=((푁퐼푅−푅퐸퐷))/((푁퐼푅+푅퐸퐷))
The result of this formula generates a value between -1 and +1. If you have low reflectance (low values) in the red band and high reflectance in the NIR, this will yield a high NDVI value. And vice versa.
Remote Sensing: Principal Component AnalysisKamlesh Kumar
Principal components analysis is a orthogonal transformational technique (preserving the symmetry between vectors and angles) to reveal new set of data arguably better from the original data set and better capture the essential information as well. It happens often that some variables are highly correlated with a lot of duplication. Instead of discarding the redundant data, principal components analysis condenses the info. in inter-correlated variables into a few variables, called principal components.
The main idea of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is to reduce the dimensionality of a data set consisting of many variables correlated with each other, either heavily or lightly, while retaining the variation present in the dataset, up to the maximum extent.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
The advantage of digital imagery is that it allows us to manipulate the digital pixel values in the image. Even after the radiometric corrections image may still not be optimized for visual interpretation. An image 'enhancement' is basically anything that makes it easier or better to visually interpret. An enhancement is performed for a specific application as well. This enhancement may be inappropriate for another purpose, which would demand a different type of enhancement.
Filtering is used to enhance the appearance of an image. Spatial filters are designed to highlight or suppress specific features in an image based on their spatial frequency. ‘Rough’ textured areas of an image, where the changes in tone are abrupt, have high spatial frequencies, while ‘smooth’ areas with little variation have low spatial frequencies. A common filtering procedure involves moving a ‘matrix' of a few pixels in dimension (ie. 3x3, 5x5, etc.) over each pixel in the image, using mathematical calculation and replacing the central pixel with the new value.
A low-pass filter is designed to emphasize larger, homogeneous areas of similar tone and reduce the smaller detail in an image. Thus, low-pass filters generally serve to smooth the appearance of an image. In some cases, like 'low-pass filtering', the enhanced image can actually look worse than the original, but such an enhancement was likely performed to help the interpreter see low spatial frequency features among the usual high frequency clutter found in an image. High-pass filters do the opposite and serve to sharpen the appearance of fine detail in an image. Directional, or edge detection filters are designed to highlight linear features, such as roads or field boundaries. These filters can also be designed to enhance features which are oriented in specific directions.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Mountainous regions occupy one-fourth of the world’s terrestrial surface, most rich in diverse landscapes and hold on to the biodiversity and cultural diversity along with supporting 10% of humankind with their direct life support base. Most mountainous regions have been at the far periphery of mainstream societal concerns for a long time. Remote, relatively inaccessible, they were generally pictured as difficulty, unyielding and unprofitable environments. Very less have focused attention on mountainous people and cultures, primitive religion, marginal survival, unusual adaptation to very high altitude, fraternal polyandry to obliterate informed communication and more meaningful analysis in practical sense. Early research concentrated mainly on specialised studies with little cross disciplinary endeavour. During the last few decades there have been spasmodic accounts of the highland and lowland mainly induced by events of great economic or political significance and due to the degradation of highlands which are potential threats to subjacent lowland population centre. Recent developments, expanding highland research and awareness spread by institutions and governments have shone a new ray of light towards the bright future. However, increased awareness with political advocacy must be pursued further.
An assessment on the temperate ecosystem with the following sub headings:
Geological evolution: Location and Extent
Atmospheric changes
Hydrological Changes
Land Degradation
Biodiversity Loss
Challenges to Human Community
Geosystem Approach: El Nino Southern Oscillation EffectsKamlesh Kumar
Earth system as a whole is very complex and dynamic, for that matter we prepare models to represent the functioning linkages and processes for better understanding. However, the geo-systems can not be summed up in just one model. Hence, we use system analysis approach, if we see Earth as a giant system, there're many sub-systems for better comprehension representing only a particular component of the system.
Here, I've tried to cover the geo-system approach siting a globe affecting example of the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena.
This report is detailed study of the research conducted in Kirori Mal College. The basic objective of this report is to get a tough insight in the use of research techniques. Geography, being a field science, a geographical enquiry always need to been supplemented through well planned Research. Research is an essential component of geographic enquire. It is a basic procedure to understand the earth as a home of humankind. Disaster management is an inseparable part of the discipline especially which deals with the study of natural phenomena. This research focuses upon the FIRE safety plan of the institution. It is carried out through observation, sketching, measurement, interviews, etc. The Research facilitate the collection of local level information that is not available through secondary sources.
In this report, various methodologies have been employed such as my, measurement and interviewing, photographing, examining, the collection and gathering of information at different corners of the institution and later, tabulating and computing them is an important part of the field work.
Furthermore, the research report has been prepared in concise form alongside with maps and diagrams for giving visual impressions. Moreover, it contains all the details of the procedures followed, methods, tools and techniques employed.
Disaster Prevention & Preparedness: Earthquake in NepalKamlesh Kumar
This report is detailed study of the field survey conducted in Kathmandu and Sindhupalchowk in Nepal on the earthquake disaster. The basic objective of this report is to get a tough insight in the use of field techniques regarding disaster management. Geography deals with human interaction with nature. This phenomenon can be better understood through field studies. Geography, being a field science, a geographical enquiry always need to be supplemented through well planned field surveys. Field is an essential component of geographic enquire. It is a basic procedure to understand the earth as a home of humankind. It is carried out through observation, sketching, measurement, interviews, etc. Field work takes the children out of the class and enables them to better understand the subject by visiting the areas practically giving an insight into the social, cultural and economic lives of the people. This also adds up the advantage of visiting the grass root levels of the society and ameliorative comprehension of the GLOCAL lives. It also has instilled various research making techniques in the budding geographers and shaping their thinking perspectives. The field surveys facilitate the collection of local level information that is not available through secondary sources.
In this report, various methodologies have been employed such as mapping, digitization, measurement and interviewing (questionnaires designing), the collection and gathering of information at the local level by conducting primary surveys and later, tabulating and computing them is an important part of the field survey.
Furthermore, the field study report has been prepared in concise form alongside with maps and diagrams for giving visual impressions. Moreover, it contains all the details of the procedures followed, methods, tools and techniques employed and the modern technology of navigation, satellite connections, GIS software have been very helpful in the pre-field drills.
The report has the following headings and sub-headings:
Introduction
Study area
Transit: Table & Maps
Disaster scenario of Nepal
Earthquake: Timeline
Causes
Impact
Who is helping Nepal?
Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Status
Objectives & Methodology
Literature review
Data representation and Analysis
Findings and Suggestions
Conclusions
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
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Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
2. WATER & ITS STUDY
• Atmo (air) litho(land) and hydro(water)form bio(life)sphere .
• 97%salty,3%freshwater
• In all state solid ,liquid ,gas.
• Ocean is the major reservoir .
• Study reference from past geographers.
• Thales explain water is everything.
• wind & currents blows, temperature, gravity, the cycle form and reform and
existence of lives possible on earth.
• Water is hydrosphere is made up of all the water on Earth. This includes
all of the rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, groundwater, polar ice caps, glaciers
and moisture in the air (like rain and snow). The hydrosphere is found on
the surface of Earth, but also extends down several miles below, as well as
several miles up into the atmosphere.
• Chemical element (H,O).
4. WHAT IS HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE?
• Hydro + logy ,cycle(water cycle)
• It describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the
surface of the Earth.
• Dynamic and continuous .
• The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean,
or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes
of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and
subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid,
solid (ice) and vapor.
5. SYSTEM APPROACH IN HYDROLOGY
• SYSTEM
the word derived from the Greek word “systema” which means a set of
rules that govern structure and/or behavior.
• A set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an
interconnecting network; a complex whole.
• System analysis approach generating output from input .
• It distributed upon time and space into linear and non linear.
• Include the elements of water cycle that varies over space and time.
• Cyclic processes of input and resulted output .
6. HYDROLOGIC INPUT & OUTPUT
• INPUT:
1. Precipitation
• OUTPUT
I. Evaporation
II. Evapotranspiration
III. Runoff and Overland flow
IV. Infiltration
7. VARIATION IN HYDROLOGICAL
CYCLE
• General descriptions of the hydrologic cycle is simple, but the smaller-
scale aspects of the hydrologic cycle, is quite complex.
• Variations within the hydrologic cycle span a wide range of spatial and
temporal scales.
• precipitation also varies with altitude and orientation to local
mountains, creating an enormous diversity of microclimates across the
globe
• Result into Global Circulation, and climatic change.
8.
9. Following are some of the important factors:
Type of Vegetation: Interception varies with the species, its age and density of stands.
coniferous trees intercept 25-35% of annual precipitation
deciduous trees intercept 15-25% of annual precipitation, but just as much as
coniferous trees during the growing season
grasses and forbs have high interception capacity during the growing but then either
die (annual plants) or loose mass (perennial plants); also they are grazed and
harvested.
Wind Velocity:
If the wind accompanies the precipitation the leaves become incapable of holding much water
as compared with the still air condition. Promotes interception loss by evaporation.
Duration of Storm:
Absolute interception storage increases with increasing storm duration.Interception will be
high due to evaporation when there’s short duration precipitation events that are spaced
sufficiently. However, if storms of long duration occur and if weather remains cloudy, relatively
interception loss will be less.
Season of the Year:
During summer or dry season the interception rate is quite high because of high evaporation.
Summer interception is 2 to 3 times more than the winter season interception.
Climate of the Area:
In arid and semiarid regions due to prevailing dry conditions the interception loss is more than
that occurring in humid regions.
10. EVAPORATION
• Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or
vapour. Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the
liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapour.
• Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. The sun (solar energy)
drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and
other sources of water. In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which
involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively termed
evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the
liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapour; this
vapour can then rise up and form clouds. With sufficient energy, the liquid
will turn into vapour.
Water changes to vapour through the
absorption of heat.
Essential requirements in the process are -:
The source of energy to vapourize the
liquid water
(solar or wind),
The presence of gradient of concentration
between the
evaporating surface and the surrounding
area.
11. FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
1. TEMPERATURE -: The hotter the air is, the more kinetic energy the surface of the
liquid will absorb. This will help with the breaking of intermolecular bonds as well.
2. EXPOSED SURFACE AREA -: If more surface area is exposed of the liquid, more
water molecules are exposed to the surface, allowing foe more water molecules to
receive kinetic energy in order to evaporate.
3. HUMIDITY -: The humidity of the surrounding air shows how many water
molecules are already present. The more water molecules already present in the
air, the lesser the rate of evaporation.
4. PRESSURE -: The more pressure there is in the surrounding air of a liquid, the
harder it will be for the water molecules to break away from their intermolecular
bonds to mix with the atmosphere.
5. WIND -: If there is more wind around the liquid that is undergoing evaporation,
more variations of air will be present to absorb the new water molecules breaking
away from the surface of the water. The added kinetic energy also helps in this
process.
12. EVAPORATION DRIVES THE WATER CYCLE
Evaporation from the oceans is the primary mechanism supporting the surface-
to-atmosphere portion of the water cycle. After all, the large surface area of the
oceans (over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by the oceans)
provides the opportunity for large-scale evaporation to occur. On a global scale,
the amount of water evaporating is about the same as the amount of water
delivered to the Earth as precipitation. This does vary geographically, though.
Evaporation is more prevalent over the oceans than precipitation, while over the
land, precipitation routinely exceeds evaporation. Most of the water that
evaporates from the oceans falls back into the oceans as precipitation.
Only about 10 percent of the water evaporated from the oceans is transported
over land and falls as precipitation. Once evaporated, a water molecule spends
about 10 days in the air. The process of evaporation is so great that without
precipitation runoff, and groundwater discharge from aquifers, oceans would
become nearly empty.
13. APPLICATION
Industrial applications include many printing and coating processes; recovering salts
from solutions; and drying a variety of materials such as lumber, paper, cloth and
chemicals.
The use of evaporation to dry or concentrate samples is a common preparatory step for
many laboratory analyses such as spectroscopy and chromatography. Systems used for
this purpose include rotary evaporators and centrifugal evaporators.
When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is
below the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as
low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind. In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through
the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.
The Matki/Matka, a traditional Indian porous clay container used for storing and cooling
water and other liquids.
The botijo, a traditional Spanish porous clay container designed to cool the contained
water by evaporation.
Evaporative coolers, which can significantly cool a building by simply blowing dry air
over a filter saturated with water.
14. TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the process by which water
vapour leaves the living plant body and enters
the atmosphere.
It involves continuous flow of water from soil in
to plant and out through stomata (leaves) to the
atmosphere.
Basically an evaporation process.
Transpiration ratio : The amount of water
transpired by a crop in its growth to produce unit
weight of dry matter.
15. ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION
Temperature: Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the
growing season, when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air masses.
Higher temperatures cause the plant cells which control the openings (stoma) where
water is released to the atmosphere to open, whereas colder temperatures cause the
openings to close.
Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the
transpiration rate falls. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more
saturated air.
Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a
higher transpiration rate. Wind will move the air around, with the result that the more
saturated air close to the leaf is replaced by drier air.
Soil-moisture availability: When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce
(premature ageing, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water.
Type of plant: Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid
regions, such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water
than other plants.
16. EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and plant
transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to
the atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement
of water to the air from sources such as the soil, canopy
interception, and waterbodies.
Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water cycle.
An element (such as a tree) that contributes to
evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator.
The transpiration aspect of evapotranspiration is
essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves.
Studies have revealed that transpiration accounts for about
10 percent of the moisture in the atmosphere, with
oceans, seas, and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers,
streams) providing nearly 90 percent, and a tiny amount
coming from sublimation (ice changing into water vapour
without first becoming liquid).
17. Why is Evapotranspiration Important?
Water continuously moves between the oceans, sky and land. This ongoing circulation
is fundamental to the availability of water on the planet and therefore to life on earth.
ET is a key process within this cycle, and is responsible for 15% of the atmosphere’s
water vapour. Without it clouds couldn’t form and rain wouldn’t fall.
Calculating ET
There are numerous ways to calculate ET to determine watering needs -:
The easiest way involves averaging ET values from the two nearest weather stations.
The resulting data, however, can be misleading. Microclimates even a few kilometres
apart can produce substantially different values. Some property owners and managers
purchase their own mini weather stations, but they tend to require frequent
calibration and are notoriously unreliable.
A relatively simple ET calculation method called Blaney-Criddle is popular, but tends to
be inaccurate in areas with higher humidity. The Makkink method requires weather
station calibration for each specific location.
Another frequently used method, called Hargreaves, uses a single sensor. Results can
be up to 60% different than other methods, calling their outcomes into serious
question.
18. FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
1. Energy availability - The more energy available, the greater the rate of evapotranspiration.
It takes about 600 calories of heat energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into a gas.
2. The humidity gradient away from the surface - The rate and quantity of water vapour
entering into the atmosphere both become higher in drier air.
3. The wind speed immediately above the surface - The process of evapotranspiration moves
water vapour from ground or water surfaces to an adjacent shallow layer that is only a few
centimetres thick. When this layer becomes saturated evapotranspiration stops.
4. Water availability - Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available.
5. Physical attributes of the vegetation - Such factors as vegetative cover, plant height, leaf
area index and leaf shape and the reflectivity of plant surfaces can affect rates of
evapotranspiration. For example coniferous forests and alfalfa fields reflect only about 25
percent of solar energy, thus retaining substantial thermal energy to promote transpiration;
in contrast, deserts reflect as much as 50 percent of the solar energy, depending on the
density of vegetation.
6. Stomatal resistance - Plants regulate transpiration through adjustment of small openings in
the leaves called stomata. As stomata close, the resistance of the leaf to loss of water
vapour increases, decreasing to the diffusion of water vapour from plant to the
atmosphere.
7. Soil characteristics - Soil characteristics that can affect evapotranspiration include its heat
capacity, and soil chemistry and albedo.
19. GEOGRAPICAL PATTERNS OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration varies with latitude, season of year, time of day, and cloud cover. Most of the
evapotranspiration of water on the Earth's surface occurs in the subtropical oceans. In these
areas, high quantities of solar radiation provide the energy required to convert liquid water into a
gas. Evapotranspiration generally exceeds precipitation on middle and high latitude landmass
areas during the summer season.
Estimates of average nationwide evapotranspiration for the conterminous United States range
from about 40 percent of the average annual precipitation in the Northwest and Northeast to
close to 100 percent in the Southwest.
The lower 5 miles of the atmosphere transports an average of about 40,000 billion gallons of
water vapour over the conterminous United States each day. Slightly more than 10 percent of this
moisture, however, is precipitated as rain, sleet, hail, or snow. The greatest proportion, about 67
percent, is returned to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration.
About 29 percent is discharged from the conterminous United States as surface-water flowing into
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and across the borders into Canada and Mexico, about 2 percent is
discharged as groundwater outflow, and about 2 percent is consumed by people, animals, plants,
and used for industrial and commercial processes. For most of the United States, evaporation
returns less moisture to the atmosphere than does transpiration.
21. PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation is any form of liquid or solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere
and reach the surface of the Earth. Precipitation is caused when a mass of warm, moist
air hits a mass of cold air. Condensation causes the moisture to form droplets that
become rain or crystals that become snow or ice. When these droplets or crystals
become too heavy to be suspended in the atmosphere, they fall to Earth as
precipitation. Different seasons and geographic locations see varying amounts of
precipitation in amount and intensity.
• There are two sub-processes that cause clouds to release precipitation,
A) The coalescence process: As water drops reach a critical size, the drop is exposed
to gravity and frictional drag. A falling drop leaves a turbulent wake behind which
allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be overtaken to join and combine with the
lead drop.
B) The ice-crystal formation process: It occurs when ice develops in cold clouds or in
cloud formations high in the atmosphere where freezing temperatures occur. When
nearby water droplets approach the crystals some droplets evaporate and condense
on the crystals. The crystals grow to a critical size and drop as snow or ice
pellets. Sometimes, as the pellets fall through lower elevation air, they melt and
change into raindrops.
When rainfall is small and infrequent, a high percentage of precipitation is returned to
the atmosphere by evaporation.
22. Several Forms of precipitation:
Snow: Precipitation f white, opaque grains of ice
Rain: Precipitation of liquid water particles, in form of drops with dia 0.5 mm or more.
Drizzle: Precipitation of very fine drops of water with dia 0.5 mm or less.
Hail: Precipitation of small balls of ice with dia ranging from 5-50 mm or even more.
Sleet: Precipitation of small pellets of transparent/lucent ice of dia 5 mm or less.
Types of precipitation:
Convectional: Heavy showers for a short duration due to convection process. Major factors being
the intense heating of surface and abundant supply of moisture in the air.
Orographic: Concentrated precipitation on the windward side of a mountain or highland due to
adiabatic cooling.
Frontal: Precipitation due to meeting of cold and warm fronts.
24. INTERCEPTION
Interception is the process of interrupting the movement of water in the chain of
transportation events leading to streams. The interception can take place by vegetal cover or
depression storages in puddles and in land formations.
When rain first begins, the water striking leaves and other organic materials spreads over the
surfaces in a thin layer or it collects at points or edges. When the maximum surface storage
capability on the surface of the material is exceeded, the material stores additional water in
growing drops along its edges. Eventually the weight of the drops exceed the surface tension
and water falls to the ground.
The amount of precipitation intercepted can be measured by placing several rain-gauges
below the vegetal canopy on the ground. Average precipitation that reaches this gauge can be
compared with the precipitation measured from a rain-gauge placed in an open area. The
difference between the two gauge readings gives the precipitation intercepted by the
vegetation.
The water caught by the vegetation gets disposed off in three ways namely:
i. Through fall;
ii. Flow along the stem; and
iii. Evaporation. Much of this intercepted rainfall evaporates before it hits the ground and
thus never makes it to the soil.
The highest level of interception occurs when it snows on conifer forests and hardwood
forests that have not yet lost their leaves.
25. INFILTRATION
• Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters
the soil.
• Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to
absorb rainfall or irrigation.
• It is most often measured in millimetres per hour or inches per hour.
• The rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated. If the precipitation rate
exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some
physical barrier.
• The rate of infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer.
26.
27. FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION
• Precipitation: The greatest factor controlling infiltration is the amount and characteristics (intensity,
duration, etc.) of precipitation that falls as rain or snow. Precipitation that infiltrates into the ground often
seeps into streambeds over an extended period of time, thus a stream will often continue to flow when it
hasn't rained for a long time and where there is no direct runoff from recent precipitation.
• Base flow: To varying degrees, the water in streams have a sustained flow, even during periods of lack of
rain. Much of this "base flow" in streams comes from groundwater seeping into the bed and banks of the
stream.
• Soil characteristics: Some soils, such as clays, absorb less water at a slower rate than sandy soils. Soils
absorbing less water result in more runoff overland into streams.
• Soil saturation: Like a wet sponge, soil already saturated from previous rainfall can't absorb much more ...
thus more rainfall will become surface runoff.
• Land cover: Some land covers have a great impact on infiltration and rainfall runoff. Vegetation can slow
the movement of runoff, allowing more time for it to seep into the ground. Impervious surfaces, such as
parking lots, roads, and developments, act as a "fast lane" for rainfall - right into storm drains that drain
directly into streams. Agriculture and the tillage of land also changes the infiltration patterns of a
landscape. Water that, in natural conditions, infiltrated directly into soil now runs off into streams.
• Slope of the land: Water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more quickly and infiltrates less than water
falling on flat land.
• Evapotranspiration: Some infiltration stays near the land surface, which is where plants put down their
roots. Plants need this shallow groundwater to grow, and, by the process of evapotranspiration, water is
moved back into the atmosphere.
28.
29. GROUND WATER
• Water in the saturated zone of soil–rock systems is commonly called
groundwater, and it represents the largest liquid water store of the terrestrial
hydrological cycle.
• Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore
spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.
• A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can
yield a usable quantity of water.
• The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become
completely saturated with water is called the water table.
• Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally;
natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can
form oases or wetlands.
• Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial
use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the
distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called
groundwater hydrology.
30. • Not all run-off flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the ground
as infiltration. Some of the water infiltrates into the ground and
replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which store huge amounts
of freshwater for long periods of time.
• Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into
surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge, and some
groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as
freshwater springs.
• Yet more groundwater is absorbed by plant roots to end up as
evapotranspiration from the leaves. Over time, though, all of this water
keeps moving, some to reenter the ocean, where the water cycle "ends" ...
Or where it "begins."
31. RUN OFF
• Surface runoff is water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, that flows over
the land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle.
• Runoff is precipitation that did not get (infiltrated) absorbed into the soil, or did
not evaporate.
• Runoff causes erosion, and also carry chemicals and substances on the ground
surface. It can cause water pollution too.
DETERMINANT
- Topography of the land
(slopes, hills and
valleys).
- The nature (make -up) of
the soil or ground.
- The amount of
precipitation.
32. RUNOFF IN NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
• A significant portion of rainfall in forested watersheds is absorbed into
soils (infiltration), is stored as groundwater, and is slowly discharged to
streams through seeps and springs.
• Flooding is less significant in these more natural conditions because
some of the runoff during a storm is absorbed into the ground, thus
lessening the amount of runoff into a stream during the storm.
33. URBAN RUNOFF
• Urban runoff is surface runoff of rainwater created by urbanization.
• This runoff is a major source of flooding and water pollution in urban
communities worldwide.
• Impervious surfaces (roads, parking lots and sidewalks) that are built from
(materials such as asphalt and concrete), carry polluted water during run off.
• This causes lowering of the water table (because groundwater recharge is
lessened) and flooding since the amount of water that remains on the surface is
greater.
• This excess water can also make its way into people's properties through
basement backups and seepage through building wall and floors.
• Also, road salt used to melt snow on sidewalks and roadways can contaminate
streams and groundwater aquifers.
• Because of fertilizer and organic waste that urban runoff often carries,
eutrophication often occurs in waterways affected by this type of runoff.
34.
35. OVERLAND FLOW
• Runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called overland
flow.
• Most water in our rivers and Underground reserves originates as overland flow
water.
• Horton overland flow - infiltration capacity and depression storage capacity.
• His more commonly occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, where rainfall
intensities are high and the soil infiltration capacity is reduced. This occurs
largely in city areas where pavements prevent water from infiltrating.
• Paved surfaces such as asphalt, which are designed to be flat and impermeable,
rapidly achieve Horton overland flow.
• Horton overland flow is most commonly encountered in urban construction sites
and unpaved rural roads, where vegetation has been stripped away, exposing
bare dirt.
• The process also poses a significant problem in areas with steep terrain, where
water can build up great speed and where soil is less stable, and in farmlands,
where soil is flat and loose.
36. HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
• Many environmental problems stem from direct or indirect
impacts on the water cycle
• Five categories of impacts:
• Changes to Earth’s surface
• Changes to Earth’s climate
• Atmospheric pollution
• Withdrawals for human use
• Dams
37.
38. 1. CHANGES TO THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
• In natural systems, vegetation intercepts precipitation
• Water infiltrates into porous topsoil, filtering out debris
• Evapotranspiration sustains ecosystems and recycles water
• Recharged groundwater reservoirs release water through springs and seeps into
streams and rivers
• In cleared forests and overgrazed land, plants do not intercept rainfall
• Built-up area prohibits infiltration and making water to flow in drains.
• Water shifts from infiltration and recharge into runoff
39. EFFECTS OF FALLOW LAND
• Removing vegetation causes a sudden influx of water into rivers and streams
• Causing floods, pollutants from erosion, and less evapotranspiration and
groundwater recharge
• Resulting in dry, barren, lifeless streambeds
• Wetlands also store and release water
• Destruction leads to flooding and polluted waterways
• Wetlands dry up during droughts
• Massive flooding can take place due to filling wetlands and converting tallgrass
prairies to plowed fields
40. 2. CLIMATE CHANGE
• There is unmistakable evidence that Earth is warming
• Increasing greenhouse gases are changing the water cycle
• Evaporation increases with a warmer climate
• A wetter atmosphere means more and heavier precipitation and floods
• More hurricanes and droughts
• Water-stressed areas (e.g., East Africa) will get less water
• Global warming may be speeding up the water cycle
• Affecting precipitation, evapotranspiration, groundwater recharge, runoff,
snowmelt, etc.
42. 3. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
• Aerosol particles form nuclei, enabling water to condense
into droplets
• More clouds form
• Anthropogenic particles are increasing
• From sulfates, carbon (soot), dust
• Form a brownish haze associated with industrial areas, tropical
burning, and dust storms
• Solar radiation is reduced
• Aerosols have a cooling effect
43. AEROSOLS AFFECT THE WATER CYCLE
• They promote smaller droplets
• They suppress rainfall, even though clouds form
• Aerosols suppress atmospheric cleansing
• They cause aerosols to remain in the air longer, further
increasing drier conditions
• Dust, smoke, and aerosols increase
• Aerosols work differently from greenhouse gases
• Aerosols have more local (vs. global) impacts
• They do not accumulate—they have a lifetime of days
44. 4. DAMS HAVE ENORMOUS IMPACTS
• Valuable freshwater habitats (waterfalls, rapids, fish runs) are lost
• Reduced waters at deltas.
• The waterway below the diversion is deprived of water
• Fish and other aquatic organisms are directly impacted
• Wildlife is adversely affected (e.g., food chains)
• Wetlands dry up and waterfowl die
• Fish (e.g., salmon) cannot swim upstream to spawn or downstream to return to
the ocean
• Even with fish ladders to help them pass the dams
• Juvenile salmon suffer 95% mortality going to sea
45. 5. WITHDRAWALS FOR HUMAN USE
USES OF WATER
• Worldwide, the largest use is for irrigation
• Then industry and direct human use
• Use varies by region, depending on:
• Natural precipitation
• Degree of development
• Most increases in withdrawal are due to increases in
agriculture
• Irrigation accounts for 65% of freshwater consumption in the U.S.
46. WATER: MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL
• Humans use 27% of all accessible freshwater runoff
• Global withdrawal will increase 10% each decade
• Americans use less water than in 1980
• No consumptive uses of water: water may be contaminated, but is still
available to humans
• Used in homes, industries, and electric power production
• Consumptive uses of water: the applied water does not return to the
water resource
• It is gone from human control
• Water for irrigation
47. NEED TO CHECK THE HUMAN IMPACT
• 37% of domestic water comes from groundwater sources- depleting fast
• 63% comes from surface water (rivers, lakes, reservoirs)- quality and quantity
deteriorating – affecting humans and biodiversity
• Rural people in developing nations get water where they can
• Women often have to walk long distances to get water
• Water in developing nations is often polluted with waste
• 1.1 billion people use polluted water
• 1.6 million (mostly children) die each year
• Millennium Development Goal 7: increase access to safe drinking water
48. EFFECTIVE WATER MANAGEMENT METHODS
Drip irrigation and other agricultural practices in Agriculture.
Tapping rain water resources through recharge pits.
Increasing awareness about effective water management.
Sustainable usage of Water.
Judicious usage of water in day to day life.
Sewage should be treated and clear water should be released into
the rivers.
Growing vegetation in Catchment Areas.
Effective usage in Industrial and Agricultural sectors.
49. THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS COULD BE
Afforestation
Reducing greenhouse gases.
Rain water harvesting
Watershed management
Manage and treat water starting at its source and at multiple locations
throughout the landscape
Protect natural systems and processes (water movement, vegetation, native
soils, sensitive/important features)
Incorporate natural features (wetlands, stream corridors, mature forests) as
design features into development plans
Re‐evaluate the cost and use of traditional building techniques and
infrastructure (lots, streets, curbs, sidewalks, storm drains)
Preserve open space and minimize land disturbance