This document provides an overview of hydrology and the hydrological cycle. It discusses key concepts in hydrology including evaporation, condensation, precipitation, interception, infiltration, and runoff. It also provides details on the percentage of the world's water resources that are fresh water versus salt water. The document is a student report submitted to their professor that covers fundamentals of hydrology, examples of hydrological reports, and data analysis.

1. Gaziantep University
15
A TYPICLA HYDROLOGICAL
REPORT
[Type the document subtitle]
arkan.hamza@hotmail.com

2. Hydrological Report
By:-
ARKAN IBRAHIM
M.Sc. student at
GAZIANTEP UNIVERSITY
SUBMITTED TO
Y.Doc.Dr.Mazen KAVVAS

3. Content:-
 Fundamentals of Hydrology
 The Hydrological Report
 Some example of hydrological report
 Analysis of Data
 Conclusion
 References

4. Introduction
1.1 World’s Water Resources 3
1.2 Hydrology and Hydrologic Cycle
1.3 Forms of Precipitation
1.4 Scope of Hydrology
1.5 Hydrological Data
1.6 Hydrologic Equation
WORLD’S WATER RESOURCES
The World’s total water resources are estimated at 1.36 × 108 -m. Of these global water
resources, about 97.2% is salt water mainly in oceans, and only 2.8% is available as fresh
water at any time on the planet earth. Out of this 2.8% of fresh water, about 2.2% is available
as surface water and 0.6% as ground water. Even out of this 2.2% of surface water, 2.15% is
fresh water in glaciers and icecaps and only of the order of 0.01% is available in lakes and
streams, the remaining 0.04% being in other forms. Out of 0.6% of stored ground water, only
about 0.25% can be economically extracted with the present drilling technology (the remaining
being at greater depths). It can be said that the ground water potential of the Ganga Basin
is roughly about forty times the flow of water in the river Ganga.

5. Hydrology:-
the branch of science concerned with the properties of the earth's water, and especially its
movement in relation to land.
Hydrological cycle:-
Description of the Hydrologic Cycle
This is an education module about the movement of water on the
planet Earth. The module includes a discussion of water
movement in the United States, and it also provides specific
information about water movement in Oregon.

6. The scientific discipline in the field of physical geography that
deals with the water cycle is called hydrology. It is concerned with
the origin, distribution, and properties of water on the globe.
Consequently, the water cycle is also called the hydrologic cycle
in many scientific textbooks and educational materials. Most
people have heard of the science of meteorology and many also
know about the science of oceanography because of the
exposure that each discipline has had on television. People watch
TV weather personalities nearly every day. Celebrities such as
Jacques Cousteau have helped to make oceanography a
commonly recognized science. In a broad context, the sciences of
meteorology and oceanography describe parts of a series of
global physical processes involving water that are also major
components of the science of hydrology. Geologists describe
another part of the physical processes by addressing groundwater
movement within the planet's subterranean features. Hydrologists
are interested in obtaining measurable information and knowledge
about the water cycle. Also important is the measurement of the
amount of water involved in the transitional stages that occur as
the water moves from one process within the cycle to other
processes. Hydrology, therefore, is a broad science that utilizes
information from a wide range of other sciences and integrates
them to quantify the movement of water. The fundamental tools of
hydrology are based in supporting scientific techniques that
originated in mathematics, physics, engineering, chemistry,
geology, and biology. Consequently, hydrology uses developed
concepts from the sciences of meteorology, climatology,
oceanography, geography, geology, glaciology, limnology (lakes),
ecology, biology, agronomy, forestry, and other sciences that
specialize in other aspects of the physical, chemical or biological
environment. Hydrology, therefore, is one of the interdisciplinary
sciences that is the basis for water resources development and
water resources management.

7. The global water cycle can be described with nine major physical
processes which form a continuum of water movement. Complex
pathways include the passage of water from the gaseous
envelope around the planet called the atmosphere, through the
bodies of water on the surface of earth such as the oceans,
glaciers and lakes, and at the same time (or more slowly) passing
through the soil and rock layers underground. Later, the water is
returned to the atmosphere. A fundamental characteristic of the
hydrologic cycle is that it has no beginning an it has no end. It can
be studied by starting at any of the following processes:
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, interception, infiltration,
percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage.
The information presented below is a greatly simplified description
of the major contributing physical processes. They include:
EVAPORATION
Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is changed
from a liquid state to a gaseous state. A considerable amount of
heat, about 600 calories of energy for each gram of water, is
exchanged during the change of state. Typically, solar radiation
and other factors such as air temperature, vapor pressure, wind,
and atmospheric pressure affect the amount of natural
evaporation that takes place in any geographic area. Evaporation
can occur on raindrops, and on free water surfaces such as seas
and lakes. It can even occur from water settled on vegetation,
soil, rocks and snow. There is also evaporation caused by human

8. activities. Heated buildings experience evaporation of water
settled on its surfaces. Evaporated moisture is lifted into the
atmosphere from the ocean, land surfaces, and water bodies as
water vapor. Some vapor always exists in the atmosphere.

9. CONDENSATION
Condensation is the process by which water vapor changes it's
physical state from a vapor, most commonly, to a liquid. Water
vapor condenses onto small airborne particles to form dew, fog,
or clouds. The most active particles that form clouds are sea
salts, atmospheric ions caused by lightning,and combustion
products containing sulfurous and nitrous acids. Condensation is
brought about by cooling of the air or by increasing the amount of
vapor in the air to its saturation point. When water vapor
condenses back into a liquid state, the same large amount of heat
( 600 calories of energy per gram) that was needed to make it a
vapor is released to the environment.
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of
water particles fall from the atmosphere and reach the ground.
There are two sub-processes that cause clouds to release
precipitation, the coalescence process and the ice-crystal
process. As water drops reach a critical size, the drop is exposed

10. to gravity and frictional drag. A falling drop leaves a turbulent
wake behind which allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be
overtaken to join and combine with the lead drop. The other sub-
process that can occur is the ice-crystal formation process. It
occurs when ice develops in cold clouds or in cloud formations
high in the atmosphere where freezing temperatures occur. When
nearby water droplets approach the crystals some droplets
evaporate and condense on the crystals. The crystals grow to a
critical size and drop as snow or ice pellets. Sometimes, as the
pellets fall through lower elevation air, they melt and change into
raindrops.
Precipitated water may fall into a waterbody or it may fall onto
land. It is then dispersed several ways. The water can adhere to
objects on or near the planet surface or it can be carried over and
through the land into stream channels, or it may penetrate into the
soil, or it may be intercepted by plants.
When rainfall is small and infrequent, a high percentage of
precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation.
The portion of precipitation that appears in surface streams is
called runoff. Runoff may consist of component contributions from
such sources as surface runoff, subsurface runoff, or ground
water runoff. Surface runoff travels over the ground surface and
through surface channels to leave a catchment area called a
drainage basin or watershed. The portion of the surface runoff
that flows over the land surface towards the stream channels is
called overland flow. The total runoff confined in the stream
channels is called the streamflow.

11. INTERCEPTION
Interception is the process of interrupting the movement of water
in the chain of transportation events leading to streams. The
interception can take place by vegetal cover or depression
storage in puddles and in land formations such as rills and
furrows.
When rain first begins, the water striking leaves and other organic
materials spreads over the surfaces in a thin layer or it collects at
points or edges. When the maximum surface storage capability
on the surface of the material is exceeded, the material stores
additional water in growing drops along its edges. Eventually the
weight of the drops exceed the surface tension and water falls to
the ground. Wind and the impact of rain drops can also release
the water from the organic material. The water layer on organic
surfaces and the drops of water along the edges are also freely
exposed to evaporation.
Additionally, interception of water on the ground surface during
freezing and sub-freezing conditions can be substantial. The
interception of falling snow and ice on vegetation also occurs. The
highest level of interception occurs when it snows on conifer
forests and hardwood forests that have not yet lost their leaves.

12. INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water
through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with
the soil. The surface phenomenon is governed by soil surface
conditions. Water transfer is related to the porosity of the soil and
the permeability of the soil profile. Typically, the infiltration rate
depends on the puddling of the water at the soil surface by the
impact of raindrops, the texture and structure of the soil, the initial
soil moisture content, the decreasing water concentration as the
water moves deeper into the soil filling of the pores in the soil
matrices, changes in the soil composition, and to the swelling of
the wetted soils that in turn close cracks in the soil.
Water that is infiltrated and stored in the soil can also become the
water that later is evapotranspired or becomes subsurface runoff.

13. PERCOLATION
Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and it's
layers, by gravity and capillary forces. The prime moving force of
groundwater is gravity. Water that is in the zone of aeration where
air exists is called vadose water. Water that is in the zone of
saturation is called groundwater. For all practical purposes, all
groundwater originates as surface water. Once underground, the
water is moved by gravity. The boundary that separates the
vadose and the saturation zones is called the water table. Usually
the direction of water movement is changed from downward and a
horizontal component to the movement is added that is based on
the geologic boundary conditions.
Geologic formations in the earth's crust serve as natural
subterranean reservoirs for storing water. Others can also serve
as conduits for the movement of water. Essentially, all
groundwater is in motion. Some of it, however, moves extremely
slowly. A geologic formation which transmits water from one
location to another in sufficient quantity for economic
development is called an aquifer. The movement of water is
possible because of the voids or pores in the geologic formations.
Some formations conduct water back to the ground surface. A
spring is a place where the water table reaches the ground
surface. Stream channels can be in contact with an unconfined
aquifer that approach the ground surface. Water may move from
the ground into the stream, or visa versa, depending on the
relative water level. Groundwater discharges into a stream forms

14. the base flow of the stream during dry periods, especially during
droughts. An influent stream supplies water to an aquifer while
and effluent stream receives water from the aquifer.
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the biological process that occurs mostly in the
day. Water inside of plants is transferred from the plant to the
atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual leave
openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the upper portion
of the plants and to cool the leaves exposed to the sun. Leaves
undergoing rapid transpiration can be significantly cooler than the
surrounding air. Transpiration is greatly affected by the species of
plants that are in the soil and it is strongly affected by the amount
of light to which the plants are exposed. Water can be transpired
freely by plants until a water deficit develops in the plant and it
water-releasing cells (stomata) begin to close. Transpiration then
continues at a must slower rate. Only a small portion of the water
that plants absorb are retained in the plants.
Vegetation generally retards evaporation from the soil. Vegetation
that is shading the soil, reduces the wind velocity. Also, releasing
water vapor to the atmosphere reduces the amount of direct
evaporation from the soil or from snow or ice cover. The
absorption of water into plant roots, along with interception that
occurs on plant surfaces offsets the general effects that
vegetation has in retarding evaporation from the soil. The forest
vegetation tends to have more moisture than the soil beneath the

15. trees.
RUNOFF
Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in
surface streams. It generally consists of the flow that is unaffected
by artificial diversions, storages or other works that society might
have on or in a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of
precipitation that falls directly on the stream , surface runoff that
flows over the land surface and through channels, subsurface
runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and moves laterally towards
the stream, and groundwater runoff from deep percolation through
the soil horizons. Part of the subsurface flow enters the stream
quickly, while the remaining portion may take a longer period
before joining the water in the stream. When each of the
component flows enter the stream, they form the total runoff. The
total runoff in the stream channels is called streamflow and it is
generally regarded as direct runoff or base flow.
STORAGE

16. There are three basic locations of water storage that occur in the
planetary water cycle. Water is stored in the atmosphere; water is
stored on the surface of the earth, and water stored in the
ground.
Water stored in the atmosphere can be moved relatively quickly
from one part of the planet to another part of the planet. The type
of storage that occurs on the land surface and under the ground
largely depend on the geologic features related to the types of soil
and the types of rocks present at the storage locations. Storage
occurs as surface storage in oceans, lakes, reservoirs, and
glaciers; underground storage occurs in the soil, in aquifers, and
in the crevices of rock formations.
The movement of water through the eight other major physical
processes of the water cycle can be erratic. On average, water
the atmosphere is renewed every 16 days. Soil moisture is
replaced about every year. Globally, waters in wetlands are
replaced about every 5 years while the residence time of lake
water is about 17 years. In areas of low development by society,
groundwater renewal can exceed 1,400 years. The uneven
distribution and movement of water over time, and the spatial
distribution of water in both geographic and geologic areas, can
cause extreme phenomena such as floods and droughts to
occur.
If a fifty-five gallon drum of water represented the total supply of
water on the planet then:
a) the oceans would be represented by 53 gallons, 1 quart, 1
pint and 12 ounces;
b) the icecaps and glaciers would represent 1 gallon, and 12
ounces;

17. c) the atmosphere would contribute 1 pint and 4.5 ounces;
d) groundwater would add up to 1 quart, and 11.4 ounces;
e) freshwater lakes would represent one half ounce;
f) inland seas and saline lakes would add up to over one third
of an ounce;
g) soil moisture and valdose water would total to about one
fourth of an ounce;
h) the rivers of the world would only add up to one-
hundredth of an ounce (less than one one-millionth of the
water on the planet).

18. Hydrological Report
PURPPSE:
The purpose of hydrological report is to understand the a
hydrological behavior of s pacific region with time and mostly
in this section the report will give a specific purpose for
example the report might have been prepared for
constructing a dam so this will be mentioned in this part.
Introduction:-
In this section of hydrologicalreport the reporter will give a
summery about the region and also talk about some historical
background of the region with describing the topography of the
and may provide a site map of the region.
For example this is a sample introductionof a HYDROLOGY OF THE
UPPER GANGA RIVER
(Introduction TheGanga River Basin covers 981,371km2 shared by India, Nepal,
China (Tibet) and Bangladesh. The River originates in Uttar Pradesh, India from
the Gangrotriglacier, and has many tributaries including the Mahakali, Gandak,
Kosiand Karnali which originate in Nepal and Tibet. The focus of the present
study is on the Upper Ganga - the main upper main branch of the River. The
UpperGanga Basin (UGB) was delineated by using the 90mSRTM digital elevation
map with Kanpur barrageas the outlet point (Figure1). The total area of the UGB
is 87,787 km2 . Theelevation in the UGB ranges from7500 m at upper mountain
region to 100 m in the lower plains. Some mountain peaks in the headwater
reaches are permanently covered with snow. Annualaveragerainfall in the UGB is

19. in the rangeof 550-2500mm. A major partof the rains is due to the south-
western monsoon fromJuly to October. The main river channel is highly regulated
with dams, barrages and corresponding canalsystems (Figure1). Thetwo main
dams are Tehri and Ramganga. There are three main canal systems. TheUpper
Ganga G Canal takes off fromthe right flank of the Bhimgoda barragewith a head
dischargeof 190 m3 /s, and presently, the gross command area is about 2 mill ha.
The Madhya Ganga canal takes off fromthe Ganga at Raoli barragenear Bijnor
and provides annualirrigation to 178,000 ha. TheLower Ganga canal comprises a
weir across theGanga at Naraura and irrigates 0.5 million ha. To providethe
background hydrologicalinformation for the assessmentof environmental flow
requirements at four selected ‘Environmental Flow’ (EF) sites, a hydrological
model was set up to simulate the catchment in the presentstate (with water
regulation infrastructure) and to generate the natural flows (withoutwater
regulation infrastructure). Thereportfurther summarizes thehydrological
information at these sites using a series of graphs which illustrate annual runoff
variability, seasonalflow distribution, 1-day flow duration curves and daily flow
hydrographs for onewetand one dry year. The document also contains a table,
which lists some typical flow characteristics at EF sites on a month-by-month
basis: rangeof expected baseflow discharges, number, magnitudeand duration of
flood events.)

21. HYDROLOGICAL DATA:-
For the analysisand design of any hydrologic project adequate
data and length of records are necessary which the length of
data dependson the type of project generally but mostly
annuallyavailabledatais used for analysis. A hydrologist is
often posed with lack of adequate data. The basic hydrological
data
required are:
(i) Climatologicaldata
(ii) Hydrometeorologicaldata like temperature, wind velocity,
humidity,etc.
(iii) Precipitationrecords
(iv) Stream-flow records
(v) Seasonalfluctuation of ground water table or piezometric
heads
(vi) Evaporationdata
(vii) Cropping pattern, crops and their consumptive use
(viii) Water qualitydata of surface streams and ground water
(ix) Geomorphologicstudies of the basin, like area, shape and
slope of the basin, mean and median elevation,mean
temperature (as well as highest and lowest temperature
recorded) and other physiographiccharacteristics of the basin;
stream density and drainage density; tanks and reservoirs
(x) Hydrometeorologicalcharacteristics of basin:
(i) a.a.r., long term precipitation,space average over the basin

22. using isohyets and several other methods (Rainbird,1968)
(ii) Depth-area-duration(DAD) curves for critical storms (station
equippedwith self-recording raingauges).
(iii)Remote sensing
Each of these above data will be given in form of tables in detail
in atypicalhydrologicalreport. for example this is some data
from HYDROLOGY OF THE UPPER GANGA RIVER )

23. Table 3: Typical flowcharacteristicsforEFsites(natural conditions),where flowsare inm3/sand
durationsare in days.

24. SOME EXAMPLE ABOUT
Austin
Climate Data

25. perception of temperatures to higher
extremes in the summer and cooler
extremes in the winter.
Solar
Located at 30°N latitude, Austin
resides in a part of the country that
receives a large amount of sunlight.
As seen in Figure 5, on average
Austin maintains 15 hours of
daytime in the summer and 11 hours
of daytime in the winter. Since
Austin lacks heavy cloud cover, there
is a range of 50-75% of available
sunlight throughout the year. This
range is extremely important when
considering methods such as solar
energy, since the solar benefit has a
lot of potential. Likewise, the large
quantity of sun affects building
designs due to possibilities of
extreme solar heat gain and glare
issues from large amounts of
sunlight. All of these issues can be
incorporated into building design to
allow for optimization of the solar
impact in Austin.
Wind
Within Austin, there is wind that is
dominant on the North and South
Axis, with some variety to the East.
Overall, Austin mainly contains wind
under 21 knots (35.4 f/s), with the
majority of the winds ranging from 7
to 10 knots (11.8 f/s - 16.8 f/s). As a
comparison, Chicago has an overall
average of 9.25 knots (15.6 f/s)
annually while Austin averages at
7.7 knots (13 f/s).3 In addition to the
varying average wind speeds,
Chicago allows for greater wind
speeds than Austin while also
creating larger percentages oftime
at these higher wind speeds.In
addition to these factors,it also has a
larger variety of wind directions than
Austin,possibly due to the proximity
to Lake Michigan and the varied built
environment and terrain.

27. Exterior DesignConditions. The design parameters in Table BELOW shall be used for
calculations under this code.

29. Data Analysis :-
In this section of the report after all the available
data is collected the reporter will have to
arrange the data and if there is any gap in the
data it should be filled out, the next step after
the missing data has been estimated then all the
data will be analyzed in form of tables and
duration curves, and then each data will be
discussed separately.Here are some important
section need to be consider in data analysis
Methods of estimating missing data:-
Estimation of Missing Precipitation Data
This situation will arise if data for rain gauges are missing (e.g. due to
instrument failure). Data from surrounding gauges are used to estimate the
missing data. Three approaches are used:
Arithmetic mean:
Use when normal annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for which
data are being reconstructed

30. Where:
Pm = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index station I
N = number of rain gauges
The Normal ratio method:
Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual
precipitation at any of the index station differs from that of the
interpolation station by more than 10%. In this method, the
precipitation amounts at the index stations are weighted by the
ratios of their normal annual precipitation data in a relationship of
the form:
Where:
Pm = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index station
Nm = average annual rain at ‘missing data’ gauge
Ni = average annual rain at gauge
N = number of rain gauges
Consistency of Precipitation Data
A double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of a rain
gauge record:
 compute cumulative rainfall
amounts for suspect gauge
and check gauges
 plot cumulative rainfall
amounts against each other
(divergence from a straight
line indicates error)

31.  multiplying erroneous data after change by a correction
factor k where
Precipitation Analysis
 Areal precipitation estimation
 Depth-area analysis
 Precipitation frequency
 Intensity-duration analysis
 Intensity-duration- frequency analysis
Areal Precipitation Estimation
1. Arithmetic mean method
2. Thiessen method
3. Isohyetal method
Arithmetic mean method
Theissen Method
 Divide the region (area A) into sub-regions centred about
each rain gauge;
 Determine the area
of each sub-region
(Ai) and compute
sub-region
weightings (Wi)
using: Wi = Ai/A
 Compute total
aerial rainfall using

32. Isohyetal Method
Potentially most accurate approach, but subjective
 Plot gauge locations on a map;
 Subjectively interpolate between rain amounts between
gauges at a selected interval;
 Connect points of equal rain depth to produce lines of equal
rainfall amounts (isohyets);
 Compute aerial rain using:

33. Infiltration Indexes
1. Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the
volume of rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to direct
runoff.
2. Estimates of runoff volume from large areas, having
heterogeneous infiltration and rainfall characteristics, are
made by use of infiltration indexes.
3. Infiltration indexes assume that infiltration rate is constant
throughout the storm duration. This assumption tends to
underestimate the higher initial rate of infiltration while
overestimating the lower final rate.
4. Infiltration indexes are best suited for applications involving
either long-duration storms or a catchment with high initial
moisture content. Under such conditions, the neglect of the
variation of infiltration rate with time generally justified on
practical grounds.
5. Two types of indexes: Phi-index and W-index are used.
Hydrologic Soil groups
All soils are classified into four hydrologic soil groups of distinct
runoff-producing properties. These groups are labeled A, B, C
and D. Following is the brief of their runoff and infiltration
properties:
A Lowest runoff potential (Greater than0.03 in/hr)
B Moderately low runoff potential (0.15 – 0.30 in/hr)
C Moderately high runoff potential (0.05 – 0.15 in/hr)
D Highest runoff potential (0 – 0.05 in/hr)
Land use and Treatment
1. The effect of the surface conditions of a watershed is
evaluated by means of land use and treatment classes.

34. 2. Land use belongs to watershed cover, including every kind
of vegetation, litter and mulch, fallow (bare soil), as well as
nonagricultural uses such as water surfaces (lakes,
swamps), impervious surfaces (roads, roof, and the like),
and urban areas .
3. Land treatment applies mainly to agricultural land uses, and
it includes mechanical practices such as contouring or
terracing and management practices such as grazing control
and crop rotation.
4. A class of land use/treatment is a combination often found
in a literature.
Ground surface (Hydrologic) condition
Hydrologic condition is based on combination of factors that affect
infiltration and runoff, including:
1. Density and canopy of vegetative areas,
2. Amount of year-round cover,
3. Amount of grass or close-seed legumes in rotations,
4. Percent of residue cover on the land surface
5. Degree of roughness
Poor: Factors impair infiltration and tend to increase runoff
Good: Factors encourage average and better than average infiltration and tend to decrease runoff.

35. Hydrograph
One other important that reporter should use a hydrograph analysis.
A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time
past a specific pointin a river, or other channel or conduit carrying flow.
The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic meters or cubic feetper
second (cms or cfs).
It can also refer to a graph showing the volume of water reaching a
particular outfall, or location in a sewerage network, graphs are commonly
used in the designofsewerage,more specifically,the designof surface
water sewerage systems and combined sewers.
Types of hydrograph can include:
 Storm hydrographs
 Flood hydrographs
 Annual hydrographs aka regimes
 Direct Runoff Hydrograph
 Effective Runoff Hydrograph
 Raster Hydrograph
Storage opportunities in the drainage network (e.g., lakes, reservoirs,
wetlands, channel and bank storage capacity)

36. Unit Hydrographs
•Two storms of equalduration but different intensities will give
similarly shaped hydrographs
• Separate base flow to get watershed response
• Many methods to separate base flow
•To determine start of surface runoff response (point A) to the
ending (point B).

37. Predictions
Observations of hydrologic processes are used to
make predictions of the future behavior of hydrologic systems
(water flow, water quality). One of the major current concerns in
hydrologic research is "Prediction in Engaged Basins" (PUB), i.e.
in basins where no or only very few data exist.
Conclusions:-
After a complete set of information analysis the reporter
will discuss the results of the analysis and give his
conclusions on the analysis then a final report result will
be written a paragraph.
Sample of conclusion about Bridge
Conclusion
Basedon the above studiesandobservations,the existingchannel underthe bridge mayormay not
be satisfactoryincontaininganddirectingfloodflows.Thisconclusionmustbe substantiatedby
detailedhydraulicanalysisusingdischargesforboththe 50 year designflow,andthe 100 yearcheck
floodflowevents.If the existingchannelisnotcapable of safelypassingtheseflows,the proposed
bridge openingmayhave tobe increasedorthe clearance increasedbyraisingthe vertical alignment.
It seemsasthoughthat the existingbridge isjust hydraulicallysatisfactoryforthe presenttime.The
resultsof the hydraulicanalysisof the existingbridgeandchannel shouldhelptobetterunderstand
the hydraulicconditions,andtodetermine whetherachange ineitheralignmentorflow areais
warranted.
Reportedby:
RogerM. Naous,P.E.
Date: October,2009

38. Or the result my be shown in a hydrologicalsummary table as
shown(Dam construction):-
References:-
1-http://www.nwrfc.noaa.gov/info/water_cycle/hydrology.cgi
2-HYDROLOGY OFTHE UPPER GANGA RIVER Bharati L. and Jayakody,PInternational Water
ManagementInstitute.
3-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology#Precipitation_and_evaporation.
4-Hydrology(principles.analysis,design) H.M. Raghunath 2nd edition .
5-Universityof TexasatAustin(school of
architecture(https://soa.utexas.edu/sites/default/disk/preliminary/preliminary/3-Ward-
Austin_Climate_Data.pdf)