Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, marking the beginning of psychology as a distinct science. Wundt's structuralism approach used introspection to analyze the basic elements of consciousness. This method proved unreliable and paved the way for behaviorism which rejected the study of the mind. William James expanded the field with his 1890 book Principles of Psychology which took a functionalist approach, examining a wide range of psychological processes. Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis in the late 19th century, introducing concepts like the conscious and unconscious mind and using techniques like dream analysis and free association. Carl Jung further developed psychoanalytic theory with concepts like the collective unconscious and archetypes.
History and Background Of Psychology - Basic IntroductionFaHaD .H. NooR
Psychology is the study of the mind, its thought, feeling and behaviour. ... In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and is a social, behavioural, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behaviour.
The history of psychology consists of a prescientific and a scientific epoch. The field of psychology as a scientific endeavor is a relatively new discipline, and borders on various other fields.
There are many different ways of thinking about human behavior. Psychologists utilize a variety of perspectives when studying how people think, feel, and behave.
Some researchers focus on one specific perspective, such as the biological perspective, while others take a more eclectic approach that incorporates multiple points of view.
There is no single perspective that is "better" than another;
each simply emphasizes different aspects of human behavior.
A presentation about William James' psychological school of thought known as Functionalism. These slides explain functionalism in a very easy language. They are pleasant to look at and fun to present while sticking to the concept.
History and Background Of Psychology - Basic IntroductionFaHaD .H. NooR
Psychology is the study of the mind, its thought, feeling and behaviour. ... In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and is a social, behavioural, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behaviour.
The history of psychology consists of a prescientific and a scientific epoch. The field of psychology as a scientific endeavor is a relatively new discipline, and borders on various other fields.
There are many different ways of thinking about human behavior. Psychologists utilize a variety of perspectives when studying how people think, feel, and behave.
Some researchers focus on one specific perspective, such as the biological perspective, while others take a more eclectic approach that incorporates multiple points of view.
There is no single perspective that is "better" than another;
each simply emphasizes different aspects of human behavior.
A presentation about William James' psychological school of thought known as Functionalism. These slides explain functionalism in a very easy language. They are pleasant to look at and fun to present while sticking to the concept.
Dreaming of the perfectly planned vacation? Look no further than a Globus tour. Where to go, where to stay, what to see, how to get around — we take care of all the logistics for you. http://www.globus.com.au/
In the Jungian, Adlerian and Gestalt theories discuss with your peer.docxzenobiakeeney
In the Jungian, Adlerian and Gestalt theories discuss with your peers what you find to be the positives of the theories and techniques and any criticisms you may have. Be certain you have read over the powerpoint, both web articles found under learning resources and the required reading assignment. Must be a minimum of 500 word
Carl Gustav Jung was the best known member of the group that formed the core of the early psychoanalytic movementfollowers and students of Sigmund Freud. After completing his medical studies, Jung obtained a position at the Burghoelzli Hospital in Zurich, Switzerland.
C. G. Jung
Carl Gustav Jung was the best known member of the group that formed the core of the early psychoanalytic movementfollowers and students of Sigmund Freud. After completing his medical studies, Jung obtained a position at the Burghoelzli Hospital in Zurich, Switzerland. There he worked with patients suffering from schizophrenia, while also conducting word association research. In 1904 Jung corresponded with Freud about this latter work and also began to use Freud's psychoanalytic treatment with his patients. In 1906 Freud invited Jung to Vienna, and they began a professional relationship. Freud soon began to favor Jung as his successor in the new and growing psychoanalytic movement. Through Freud's efforts, Jung was appointed Permanent President of the Association of Psycho-Analysis at its Second Congress in 1910. Jung and Freud held in common an understanding of the profound role of the unconscious. Their understanding of the nature of the unconscious, however, began to diverge. This led to a painful break between the two men in 1913 after Jung's publication of a major article on the psychology of the unconscious which emphasized the role of symbolism (Jung, 1912). Freud felt personally betrayed by Jung's departure from his theoretical views. Jung likewise felt betrayed, believing that Freud, because of his inflexibility, had failed to support this extension of their mutual work.
In the years from 1913 to 1917, when Jung was largely ostracized by the psychoanalytic community, he embarked upon a deep, extensive, (and potentially dangerous) process of self-analysis that he called a "confrontation with the unconscious" (Jung, 1961, chap. 6, pp. 170-99). Jung emerged from this personal journey with the structures in place for his theories on archetypes, complexes, the collective unconscious, and the individuation process. These theories, along with his understanding of the symbolism found in dreams and in other creative processes, formed the basis of his clinical approach, which he called analytical psychology. Throughout his long life, Jung continued to develop and broaden his theoretical framework, drawing both on his clinical practice and his study of such wide-ranging subjects as alchemy, Eastern religions, astrology, mythology, and fairy tales.
Jungian Theory
Jungian theory is very much experience driven. It is an approach which keeps ...
Chapter 2 - psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud
Born 1856 – What was going on in the united states?
Franklin Pierce was president of the U.S.
The Civil War in the United States was still a few years away (1861).
A lot of people die in Kansas over slavery.
500 Mormons leave Iowa City, headed for Salt Lake City.
Early life
Born in Moravia in Czechoslovakia in 1856 to a Jewish family
Had a very loving and protective mother; stern and authoritarian father (20 years older than his mother).
His father was a widower. From his father’s first marriage he had two elder brothers, one of which had a son Sigmund’s age. So… Sigmund was born an uncle.
Freud and his family moved to Vienna when he was four years of age. He stayed there close to 80 years, moving only when the Nazi party took power in 1938.
Freud was the oldest of his five siblings and given preferential treatment.
He had dreams of becoming a general or lawyer, but because he was a Jew he couldn’t.
He began medical studies at the University of Vienna and graduated 8 yrs. later.
Professional life
He established a practice as a clinical neurologist in 1881.
Freud made notable contributions to research. Developing a method to of staining cells for microscopic study.
As a physician, he explored the anesthetic properties of cocaine.
In his private practice Freud focused on the study of neurosis (emotional disturbances.)
He released Interpretation of Dreams in 1900.
There was a group of doctors who worked in Vienna that would hang out and talk: Jung, Adler, Jones, Brill, Sandor.
Origins of psychoanalysis
On his return from France, Freud became influenced by a Viennese physician and friend, Joseph Breuer.
Psychoanalysis began with the case history of Joseph Breuer’s patient, Anna O.
Psychoanalysis - A treatment approach based on the observation that individuals are often unaware of many of the factors that determine their emotions and behavior. These unconscious factors may be the source of considerable distress and unhappiness, and other troubling personality traits.
Anna O. experienced what is now know as conversion disorder (called hysteria at the time)
Breuer used hypnosis and “talking method”
After talking about her father’s illness and death, Anna experienced catharsis (emotional release), and her symptoms were relieved.
She became very attached to Dr. Breuer causing problems with his wife… she offered him a phantom pregnancy as her last symptom.
Freud starts working more on his own…
Freud used the “talking method” to assist his patients in remembering past traumatic events first through hypnosis, but later abandoned this technique when he realized that not all patients could be hypnotized.
Unconscious processes (forces unaware to the person)
Resistance: force that prevents the patient from becoming aware of events and keeps them in the unconscious – not allowing painful memories into consciousness… no ill effects
Repression: blocking of a wish or desire (strong emotions evoked fr ...
Table of Contents:
- THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
- DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
- BASIC SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGICAL SCHOOLS
- STRUCTURALISM
- FUNCTIONALISM
- PSYCHOANALYTIC SCHOOL
- THE STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHE
- CRITICISM OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
- BEHAVIORISM
- GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
- HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
- COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
- BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
- RESEARCH METHODS
Il ruolo del processo di normalizzazione verso il piano frontoparallelo nella...Catina Feresin
It is well known that the visual system is more sensitive to surfaces which varies in a discontinuous manner, such as a step and is probably less sensitive to surfaces which varies in continuous manner, such as a ramp. This different sensitivity could be the reason for expecting normalization to happen with a ramp but not with a step.
For this reason we carried out an experiment in order to determine if there was a depth normalization effect probably due to the texture of the stimulus used, in fact the random texture was sending a signal of verticality to the visual system. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that there is no normalization to the frontoparallel plane for a step surface.
L'uso di stimoli ecologicamente validi nella percezione visiva di superfici i...Catina Feresin
Visual inclination underestimation is a well known phenomenon in which the inclination of a surface is perceived by the observer as less inclined with respect to the frontoparallel plane. This phenomenon is a common finding, but in spite of many attempts to explain it, it has not yet received a valid interpretation. Our perception of natural inclined surfaces depends on a variety of depth cues, so the claim is that it would be useful to employ more ecological stimuli like hills or urban roads instead of simple and artificial stimuli like figure outlines or random dots pattern.
La normalizzazione dell'inclinazione dell'immagine consecutiva e il ruolo del...Catina Feresin
Most of afterimage spatial characteristics such as width and shape can be referred to an environmental frame of reference. As regards the space orientation of an afterimage, it is still an open question whether such an orientation should be referred to a retinal or to an environmental frame of reference.
The main aim of this work was to study the orientation of a line afterimage It is possible to demonstrate that, when an observer tilts his / her head while projecting an afterimage onto a frontoparallel projection plane, the afterimage normalizes to the environmental horizon. In fact, the amount of the afterimage tilt is statistically smaller than the amount of the head tilt. The results of the present work showed that the difference between the amount of the afterimage tilt and that of the head tilt cannot be explained by static countertorsion which corresponds only to the 10% of the head tilt.
Therefore, a tentative explanation of the results is that the spatial orientation of an afterimage might be referred to an environmental frame of reference rather than to a retinal one.
"Shear" verticali, orizzontali e percezione stereoscopica di superfici inclinateCatina Feresin
The deformation theory claimed by Koenderink and van Doorn (1976) suggests that the amount of deformation between two simultaneous binocular images can be used by the visual system to compute stereoscopic inclination. This theory states that there should be no statistical difference between the perceived inclination of a ramp surface when two stereoscopic images are related by a vertical shear transformation containing vertical disparities, and the perceived inclination of a ramp surface when two stereoscopic images are related by a horizontal shear transformation containing horizontal disparities.
In the present experiment, subjects estimated the perceived inclination of many random dots ramp surfaces, both when the two stereoscopic images were related by a vertical shear transformation, and when the images were related by a horizontal shear transformation. Even if the observers were clearly able to perceive a ramp surface in the presence of a vertical shear transformation, the results of this experiment did not support the deformation theory because the perceived inclinations in the two experimental conditions (vertical and horizontal shear condition) were statistically different.
1. LA SANTÉ EST UN DROIT UNIVERSEL HEALTH IS AN UNIVERSAL RIGHT
La possibilité de recevoir des soins centrés sur la personne, de choisir et de constituer des facteurs protecteurs de la santé et de neutraliser les menaces et les facteurs de risque pour la meilleure qualité de la vie à tous les âges du développement où de l’involution humaine, dans toutes les conditions économiques et sanitaires, est un droit individuel et universel qu’il faut respecter dans toutes les nations. Les décisions de politique sanitaire des États doivent être fondées sur la vérité scientifique et la valeur irréductible de la personne, de la conception à la mort naturelle, et doivent empêcher la production, le commerce, la légalisation des toutes les drogues récréatives et stupéfiantes et le commerce des parties du corps humain et de sa génétique.
The possibility to receive a person centered health care, choosing and constituting life and health protective factors and neutralizing life menaces and risk factors for the best life quality at any age of the human development or involution, in any social and economic condition, at any disease time, is an individual and universal person right to be respected in any Country. The health policies of Governments must be based on scientific truth and the irreducible value of the person since the conception to the natural death and must inhibit the production, trading and legalization of all recreational substances, narcotics and the trading of human body parts and genetic.
The role of the school space in preschoolers's learning processesCatina Feresin
Purpose of the study
The first aim of the present article was to investigate the role of school environment as an important factor in the learning process of children attending preschools in Istria (i.e. a part of Croatia where many people speak Italian).
The school space is also called “Third educator” by famous pedagogues and it is constituted by labs, corridors, materials shape of the building, colours of the walls, quality of the lightings, type of furnishings and all didactic materials. It is a specific environment where the children live, learn, experience, get in touch with other people.
Methodology
The method used in our research was both quantitative as qualitative analyses of pedagogical documentation, observation of the environment of preschools and interviews with the educational boards of every school.
Results
The results showed that the school space is mostly in accordance with the requirements of the current legislation of the Country of Croatia and also confirmed the importance of it as “Third educator”, especially when the educators themselves were able to ameliorate the richness of corners and materials made available for children, encouraging in this way the development of the child's independence, maturation of identity and development of competencies.
Implications
In conclusion, school environment significantly affects child's learning, both because of the influence of architectural structures as because relational contexts and stimuli offered by the environment and by the educators. It means that the Ministry of Education in any Country should pay attention to the way buildings are constructed, especially regarding the richness of corners and materials at disposal of the children and of the educators.
Keywords: child; school environment; preschoolers; learning process
Mood disorders in preschool and primary school childrenCatina Feresin
Abstract
In the last few years a number of researchers have pointed out that the
seriousness of mood disorders among preschool and primary school children is
still underestimated when compared to the seriousness of the same illness
during adolescence and adulthood (Luby, 2009). In spite of that, many pupils are
still not diagnosed and treated. Without any treatment, this illness can lead to
severe psychiatric problems in future adolescents and adults who suffered from
it during their childhood (Carretti et al., 2009; Muratori, 2008; Muratori &
Apicella, 2008).
The objective of this work is threefold: firstly, to describe the principal
symptoms of mood disorders in order to help preschool and primary school
teachers to clearly recognise them; secondly, to describe the treatments which
psychologists and psychiatrists are using nowadays to treat young children
affected by this illness. Finally, as educators, we would like to suggest two
programmes which include a close cooperation between clinicians and teachers
themselves. The former is a three-step prevention programme to be held during
the last two years of primary school, whilst the latter is a programme to be held
during the last two years of preschool. It is understood that educators are not
asked to become clinicians, but they might closely collaborate with clinicians by
supporting children which are coping with mood disorders.
Feresin C. and Howard I. P. (1995) Disparità verticali e movimenti oculari di...Catina Feresin
An old but interesting article written in Italian with Ian Howard. The work is about the role of vertical disparity in the perception of visual inclination.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
3. Although people have always
attempted to understand behaviour, the
study of psychology as a distinct
science is scarcely more than a century
old.
The most famous psychological schools
are:
6. Most historians date back the
founding of scientific psychology to
1879, the year when Wilhelm Wundt
established his psychology laboratory
at the University of Leipzig in
Germany.
8. The new discipline represented a
convergence of two currents of thought
in philosophy and science. One was the
tradition of empiricism with its
emphasis on experience; the other was
the science of physiology.
9. Empiricism, introduced by the
philosopher John Locke in the
seventeenth century, focused on the
experience of the world as a source of
knowledge.
10. Since the world is communicated to
people through the sensory organs,
Wundt was interested in the
relationship between the activation of
these organs by physical events and the
resulting psychological experiences.
11. The other tradition was the science of
physiology. In the nineteenth century,
the brain and the nervous system were
analysed by many researchers. Wundt
was a physiologist himself.
12. The method used by Wundt was called
introspection and it may seem naive
now, but at least it was systematic. For
example he and his colleagues
attempted to test all the conscious
experiences that occurred while trained
observers were looking at visual
images or listening to the beat of a
metronome.
13.
14.
15. This psychological current was later
named structuralism.
Through identification of the basic
elements of mental experience
(sensations, images and feelings),
Wundt and his followers tried to
understand the structure of mind.
16. Despite heroic attempts of the early
psychologists to ensure the accuracy
and reliability of their introspective
data, their effort failed, for these two
reasons:
17. 1-Many cognitive activities cannot be
introspected upon;
2-during the mentioned experiments,
there were several disagreements
among basic observations.
As a matter of fact, without reliable
observations, there can be no science as
well.
18. The failure of the introspective method
to provide reliable data had widespread
repercussions. It prepared the way for
Watson’s radical proposal that
psychology should study only man’s
behavior and reject introspection and
the study of the mind.
20. William James published in 1890 a
book entitled Principles of Psychology.
There were no boundaries to James's
interest in psychological processes, and
no areas to which his mind would not
investigate.
22. In his “Principles”, he devoted chapters
to habit, attention, perception, memory,
reasoning, instinct, emotion,
imagination, psychological methods,
and even hypnotism.
24. Sigmund Freud was born on May 6th
1856 in a small town, Freiberg, in
Moravia. When he was a child, the
family moved to Vienna, where he then
lived most of his life.
27. A brilliant child, a talented and skillful
student, he went to a medical school,
one of the few available options for a
bright Jewish boy in Vienna those days.
There, he became involved in research
under the direction of a physiology
professor named Ernst Brücke.
28. Brücke believed in what we now call
reductionism: "No other forces than
the common physical-chemical ones
are active within the organism.” Freud
would spend many years trying to
"reduce" personality to neurology, a
cause he later gave up on.
29. Freud was very good at doing research,
concentrating mainly on
neurophysiology, but only a limited
number of positions at the University
were available, and there were others
ahead of him.
30. Brücke helped him to get a grant to
study, first with the great psychiatrist
Charcot in Paris, then with his rival
Bernheim in Nancy. Both these
researchers were investigating the use
of hypnosis with hysterics.
31. After spending a short time as a
resident in neurology and director of a
children's ward in Berlin, he came back
to Vienna, married his fiancée of many
years and set up a practice in
neuropsychiatry, with the help of J.
Breuer.
32. Freud emigrated to England just before
World War II when Vienna became an
increasing dangerous place for Jews,
especially the ones as famous as Freud.
Not long afterwards, he died of a
cancer of his mouth and jaw he had
suffered from for the last 20 years of
his life.
33. Freud's books and lectures brought him
both fame and ostracism from the
mainstream of the medical community.
He drew around him a number of very
bright sympathisers who became the
very core of the psychoanalytic
movement (Jung, Adler, Anna Freud).
34. Freud did not exactly invent the idea of
the conscious versus unconscious mind,
but he certainly was responsible for
making it popular. The conscious mind
is what you are aware of at any
particular moment, your present
perceptions, memories, thoughts,
fantasies and feelings.
36. Working closely with the conscious
mind is what Freud called the
preconscious, what we might call today
"available memory:" anything that can
easily be made conscious, the
memories you are not thinking about at
the moment but can readily brought to
your mind. Freud suggested that
conscious and preconscious are the
smallest parts of our whole mind.
37. The largest part by far is the
unconscious. It includes all the things
that are not easily available to
awareness, such as our instincts, and
things that are to be found there since
we are not able to look at them, such as
the memories and the emotions
associated with trauma.
38. According to Freud, the unconscious is
the source of our motivations, whether
they be simple desires for food or sex,
neurotic compulsions, or the ideals of
an artist or scientist. And yet, we are
often driven to deny or resist becoming
conscious of these motivations, and
they are often available to us only in a
disguised form (i.e. during a night
dream).
39. Some of Freud's most interesting works
are:
-A General Introduction to
Psychoanalysis;
-The Interpretation of Dreams;
-The Psychopathology of Everyday
Life;
-Totem and Taboo;
-Civilisation and Its Discontents
and many others.
40. Unfortunately, Freud had a penchant
for rejecting people who did not totally
agree with him. Some left him on
friendly terms; others did not, and went
on to found competing schools of
thought (i.e. Carl Jung).
42. Carl Jung's theory divides the psyche
into three parts. The first is the ego,
which Jung identifies with the
conscious mind. Closely related to it is
the personal unconscious, which
includes anything which is not
presently conscious, but it can be.
43. But then Jung adds the part of the
psyche that makes his theory stand out
from all the others: the collective
unconscious.
44. The collective unconscious is our
"psychic inheritance." It is the
“reservoir” of our experiences as a
species, a kind of innate knowledge we
are all born with, and yet we can never
be directly conscious of it.
45. The contents of the collective
unconscious are called archetypes.
Jung also called them dominants,
mythological or primordial images.
An archetype is an unlearned tendency
to experience things in a certain way.
46. The mother archetype is a particularly
good example. It is symbolised by the
primordial mother or "earth mother" of
mythology, by Eve and Mary in
western traditions.
47.
48. The persona archetype represents your
public image. The word is, obviously,
related to the word person and
personality, and comes from a Latin
word for mask. As a consequence, the
persona is the mask you put on before
you show yourself to the outside world.
49.
50. Anima and animus archetype
A part of our person is the role of male
or female we must play. For most
people that role is determined by their
physical gender. But Jung, Freud, Adler
and others felt that we are all really
bisexual in nature.
51. If you are looking for something among
Jung’s work, you might read:
-Analytic Psychology: Its Theory and
Practice;
-Man and His Symbols.