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An overview of the Scientific Revolution to go with lesson plans on the subject at the History Teaching Institute at Ohio State University
http://hti.osu.edu/scientificrevolution/lesson_plans
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http://hti.osu.edu/scientificrevolution/lesson_plans
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3. Some Historical Context
Copernicus published Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres (1543)
Galileo and Shakespeare born in 1564
Reginald Scott: Discoverie of Witchcraft
(1584)
Questioned reality of witchcraft based on empirical
observation and reason
Threat of witchcraft charges or heresy stifled observation
and experimentation of natural phenomena
Johannes Kepler published Mysterium
Cosmographicum in 1596
Galileo published The Starry Messenger in
1610 and Letters on Sunspots in 1613
30 Years War: Sovereignty and Religion
1618-1648 war involved most of the Kingdoms in
Western and Central Europe
Who decides religion of the Kingdom? Prince or Church?
4. Scientific Theory and Medieval
World View: Aristotle
Aristotle: all things in nature are composed
of 4 fundamental elements:
Air
Fire
Water
Earth
These elements were bound to follow their
ideal nature:
Air & Fire move upward.
Water & Earth move downward
The elements strive against one another and
this striving is what keeps everything in place
Air and fire combined to form Aether which is
what heavenly bodies –stars and planets– are
made of and why they remain in the sky
5. Scientific Theory and Medieval
World View: Ptolemy
Stars on a fixed sphere and earth was its center
Beyond the earth moving about it in a spherical
plane were the planets
Beyond the planets were the stars
Beyond the stars was the “Prime Mover” or “First
Cause”
Ptolemy’s theory said planets moved in epicycles
to explain why planets appeared to stop and
change direction
More and more complex epicycles were needed
as observation improved through telescopes and
lenses and as mathematics improved
6. Dante & Thomas
Aquinas
Nature is kept going moment to moment by a
miracle always new and forever renewed
God ordered the universe through this
miracle
The miracle depended not only on God but
man’s faith in God—absolute and unwavering
During the Renaissance and after the Black
Plague: scholars became more interested in
studying the miracle
How did it work?
Study was not intended to disprove but to understand
Knowledge about the miracle can bring man closer to
God
7.
8. Copernicus and the Heliocentric Universe
“Finally we shall place the sun himself at the center of
the universe…if only we face the facts, as they say,
with both eyes open.” – Nickolaus Copernicus
10. Copernicus and
Christianity
Investigate the images on the previous
slide. What evidences of Christianity do
you see?
Copernicus was deeply religious
He believed that his system, based on
mathematical calculations, would restore a
pure understanding of God’s design
11. Copernican Theory
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
(1543)
Argued the case for a heliocentric view of the
universe
Published the year Copernicus died
Remained a subject of debate for 100+
years
Magisterium Cosmographicum by
Johannes Kepler published in 1596
supported Copernican theory through
mathematics
12. Kepler’s Laws
Everything in creation had been created
according to mathematical laws
Understanding these laws would allow
humans to share God’s wisdom
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Planetary orbits of the sun are elliptical
Speed of planets varied with their distance from the
sun
Magnetic forces between the sun and the planets kept
the planets in orbital motion around the sun
13. Galileo
Born in 1564
Professor of Mathematics at University of
Padua
Galileo’s Patron: Cosimo de Medici (wealthy
banker and ruler of Florence)
1597: Galileo read Kepler’s book
Galileo had already adopted Copernican
theory but feared the wrath of the church if
he published his views
Unlike Copernicus and Kepler who wrote in
Latin and whose writings were heavy on
math, Galileo wrote in Italian and explained
concepts with words.
14. Letter to Foscarini
Cardinal Bellarmine to Paolo Antonio
Foscarini (1615)
Argued that acceptance of Copernican theory
contradicts the holy scriptures
15. “Doubt thou the stars are
fire?”
Shakespeare and Galileo were born in the
same year-1564
Doubt thou the stars are fire,
Doubt that the sun doth move,
Doubt truth to be a liar,
But never doubt I love. Shakespeare, Hamlet, II.2 (c. 1600)
16. The Sun and the Earth
Psalm 19:4-6
yet their voice goes out through all the earth, and their words to the end of the
world. In them he has set a tent for the sun, which comes forth like a
bridegroom leaving his chamber, and like a strong man runs his course
with joy. Its rising is from the end of the heavens, and its circuit to the
end of them; and there is nothing hid from its heat.
Psalm 93:1
The Lord reigns; he is robbed in majesty; the lord is robbed, he is girded with
strength. Yea, the world is established; it shall never be moved.
Hyperbole or fact?
Is Cardinal Bellarmine’s position based on his not knowing the
difference between poetic license by the Psalmist or because
the Church was under increasing pressure from the spread of
Protestantism and Royal claims of sovereignty that
undermined the power of the Church?
17. Belief, Reason
“I do not feel obliged to believe that that
same God who has endowed us with
senses, reason, and intellect has intended
to forgo their use and by some other
means to give us knowledge which we can
obtain by them.”
---Galileo, Letter to Grand Duchess
Christina (1615)
18. Galileo & Heresy
Charged with heresy in 1616
Published A Dialogue Concerning the Two
Chief World Systems in 1632
A debate between supporters of geocentric and
heliocentric view of universe
Inquisition banned Dialogue and ordered
Galileo to stand trial in 1633
Galileo convicted & ordered to repent heresy of
heliocentric universe
Banned from working on or discussion Copernican ideas
House arrest for life
The Roman Catholic church dropped
opposition to the heliocentric universe in
1835
20. Structural Foundations of
Scientific Advances
Body of Knowledge
Heliocentric universe
Mathematical physics
Method of inquiry
Scientific method
Observation
Experimentation
Testing
New societies and Institutions
Royal patrons
Wealthy patrons
University Systems
21. Galileo Galilei (1564-
1642)
Invented a telescope that enabled him to confirm many of Kepler’s
observations
The Starry Messenger (1610) confirmed heliocentric view of the
universe
Church indicted Galileo in 1616 for heresy
Galileo published A Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
in 1632
A debate between supporters of geocentric and heliocentric view of
universe
Inquisition banned Dialogue and ordered Galileo to stand trial in 1633
Galileo convicted
Repent heresy of heliocentric universe
Banned from working on or discussion Copernican ideas
House arrest for life
Two New Sciences published in 1638 in Holland
Early version of theory of inertia
Same laws which govern the motion of objects on earth could also be
observed in the heavens
The church dropped opposition to the heliocentric universe in 1835
23. Methods for a New
Philosophy I
Frances Bacon (1561-1626)
“Knowledge is power”
Authority of the ancients should not constrain
modern thinkers
“If thinkers will be content to begin with doubts they
will end with certainties”
Scientific method
Observation
Experimentation
Confirmation
Inductive reasoning: amassing evidence from specific
observations to draw general conclusions
25. Methods for a New
Philosophy II
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Discourse on the Method (1637)
Doubt everything
“Never to receive anything as a truth which [he] did not
clearly know to be such.”
Cogito Ergo Sum “I think, therefore I am”
The thinking individual existed, reason existed, God
existed
Deductive Reasoning: proceeding logically from one
certainty to another, “so long as we avoid accepting as
true what we do not know.”
27. Isaac Newton (1642-
1727)
Cambridge 1664-1666
Optics: white light composed of different colored rays
Mathematics: integral calculus and differential calculus
Gravity: Apple falls to earth because the earth draws it
Principia Mathematica 1687 & 1713
Gravitation is a universal force and can be expressed
mathematically
Law of Gravitation “All bodies whatsoever are endowed with
a principle of mutual gravitation.”
Science need not always uncover causes, science could and
did describe natural phenomena and accurately predict the
behavior of objects as confirmed by experimentation
Role of Print Capitalism
Publication across Europe in vernacular
John Locke published Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (1690).
Read Newton twice.
28. Observations about the
Scientific Revolution
Elite knowledge
Formed by core of ancient and medieval
scholarship—did not spin out of empty space
Did not undo the authority of the ancients in one
fell swoop
Change occurred gradually
Did not usurp Christian religious belief
natural philosophers did not attempt to refute the idea of
a divinely ordered universe
Intricate universe was evidence of God’s guiding presence.
Newton: a firm advocate of this view.
Challenged authority of the Church in matters
related to studying the physical world
Question to consider:
Is religious opposition to man made climate change similar
to religious opposition to heliocentric universe?
29. What was Different about the
Scientific Revolution?
1. Produced new answers to fundamental
questions about the physical world
2. Developed new approach to amassing and
integrating information in a systematic way
3. Science moved out of the church and into
universities and lay organizations
4. New beliefs about the purpose and methods
of science
No longer sought to confirm old truths
New methods designed to explore the unknown and
discover new truths
Old model of learning: read, reason logically, compare classical
texts.
New model of learning: discovery (hypothesize, experiment,
observe, reason)
5. Replaced the medieval view of physical world
32. The Enlightenment (1700-
1800)
Shared characteristics of Enlightenment
Writings
Confidence in the power of human reason
Stemmed from accomplishments of the scientific
revolution especially Locke, Bacon and Newton.
Nature operated according to laws that could be grasped
by study, observation, and reason.
Societies are a product of nature (man) and can be
observed to discern natural laws that govern society.
“Dare to know”: confront the power of established
institutions including the monarch and the church
Belief in the perfectibility and goodness of humanity
Locke’s tabula rasa (blank slate)
Education might level social hierarchies
Scientific method: observe particular phenomena to
arrive at general laws as applicable to study of human
affairs
33. General Observations
Not all Enlightenment thinkers agreed
Elite pursuit like Scientific Revolution
Educated middle class artisans and
merchants read Enlightenment thinkers as
a result of
print capitalism
Expansion of education by enlightened absolutists
growing markets of people with new wealth.
Literacy extended to growing numbers of women.
Enlightenment thought varied from
country to country
34. Philosophes
Enlightenment thought was a European
phenomenon
British thinkers played a key role
France was the stage and the language of the
Enlightenment
Philosophe Fr., free thinker; a person
whose reflections were unhampered by
the constraints of religion or dogma in any
form
35. Important Enlightenment
Themes
Humanitarianism: stressed the dignity and worth
of all human beings
Caesare Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments (1764)
Punishments should not represent vengeance
Purpose of Punishment: maintain social order & deterrence
Opposed torture and the death penalty
Opposed principle of slavery
Few opposed the practice of slavery
Applied to women as long as they maintained their proper
roles as wives and mothers, subordinate to men.
Religious toleration
Toleration of religious minorities
Applied mostly to Christians not Jews or Muslims
Personal Liberty
Capitalism
Social contract
Representative government or Enlightened monarchs
36. Voltaire (1694-1778)
Francois Marie Arouet
Religious and political liberty
Compared British open-mindedness and empiricism
with French society, aristocracy and church
Praised British tax system for fairness compared with
French tax system (too many exemptions to church
and nobility)
Compared British constitutional monarchy with French
absolutism
Condemned religious bigotry
“The less superstition, the less fanaticism; and the less
fanaticism the less misery.”
37. Adam Smith
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations (1776)
Central Issues
Productivity of labor
How labor was used in different sectors of the economy
Mercantile restrictions did not encourage the productive
deployment of labor and did not create real economic
health
General prosperity could best be obtained by allowing
individuals to pursue their own interests without
interference from state chartered monopolies or legal
restraints that privileged some interests over others
“Invisible hand” of the free market
“Obvious and simple system of natural liberty” champion
of justice against state sponsored economic privilege and
monopoly
38. Observations and Questions
about Smith
Smith would oppose ALL subsidies and monopolies
including:
Oil company subsidies
Farm subsidies
Insurance company subsidies
Commodity subsidies
Smith wrote when Europeans were in a position to
dominate global markets. How would he react to the global
markets today?
Smith did not address natural disasters; effects of war
Smith believed in the right of governments to tax citizens
and colonies for benefits provided
Smith did not answer questions about how to manage boom and bust cycle
of capitalism. Boom and bust was a natural law.
Did Smith’s belief represent a naïve faith that the rich
would share the wealth?
Did Smith consider the danger of unrestricted capitalism on
natural resources?
Late 18th and early 19th century Whaling is good example of dangers to
natural resources by unrestricted capitalism
39. Enlightenment Thinkers had
Complex Ideas about Slavery
Most Enlightenment thinkers opposed slavery in
principle
Few Enlightenment thinkers opposed the practice
Theory
Smith: uneconomical
Voltaire: would Europeans look away if Africans enslaved
Europeans
Montesquieu: Slavery debased both Europeans and Africans
Beliefs
Africans and African cultures were less “civilized” than Europeans
Hard work raises the moral and cultural development of less
civilized peoples
Each society free to balance their systems of labor in accordance
with their special needs
Individual rights to property should be protected and slaves were
property
Slaves were not ready for freedom because they had never known
freedom and slavery had destroyed their natural virtue
40. Pacific Exploration
Systematically mapping new sections of the
Pacific presented new opportunities for
knowledge
Scientific missions
Luis Anne de Bougainville (1729-1811)
Sought new trade route to China
Discovered Tahiti
James Cook (1728-1779)
Charted coasts of New Zealand
New Hebrides, Hawaii, explored coasts of Antarctica, the
Bering Sea & Arctic Ocean
Expanded knowledge of Botany, Zoology and Geology
Portraits of Maoris and Tahitians
Travel literature widely popular with non-
academic public
41. Impact of Scientific
Exploration
Spawned theories of man in his “natural
environment” based on information and
observation about Tahitian, Maori, and Hawaiian
peoples
Diderot, Supplement au Voyage de Bougainville,
(1772)
Simplicity of “natives” exposed the hypocrisy, and rigidity of
over-civilized European society
Represented break with earlier European views which
understood the world as divided between Christendom and
heathen “others”
Gave rise to paternalistic views of European colonialism
Duty to protect simplistic societies in their natural state
Unintended Consequence?
Enabled advance of colonialism in name of “science”
Resulted in deaths of hundreds of thousands of Pacific
Islanders
43. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-
1778)
The Social Contract
“Man was born free but everywhere he is in chains.”
In the state of nature all men are free
Inequality is anchored in private property which profoundly corrupted the
social contract
Under these conditions of property and inequality, governments protected only
the rich and the privileged.
“The problem is to find a form of association…in which each, while uniting
himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before.”
Freedom does not mean the absence of restraint but that all obey the laws
that they had made themselves
Equality= no man is rich enough to buy another, nor poor enough to have to
sell himself
The Body Politic
Sovereignty belongs to the people alone
No separation of powers
Exercising sovereignty transformed the nation
Creating a regenerated and powerful nation in which citizens are bound by
mutual obligation rather than coercive laws
United in equality rather than divided by privilege
National community is guided by the General Will
Common interest of the nation arose above individual demands
Was not particularly concerned with balancing individual interest against the
General Will
44. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-
1797)
A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)
Opposed to monarchy and favored Republicanism
Opposed artificial distinctions or rank, birth or wealth
Argued that equality laid the basis for virtue
Women had same innate capacity for reason and self-
government as men
Virtue should mean the same thing for men and women
Relations between the sexes should be based on equality
Legal inequalities of marriage laws deprived women of
property rights and gave husbands despotic power over their
wives
“Civilized women are …so weakened by false refinement that,
respecting morals, their condition is much below what it would
be were they left in a state nearer to nature”
A culture that encouraged feminine weakness produced
women who are childish, cunning, cruel and vulnerable
Education for women had to promote liberty and self-reliance
Believed women and men had different duties
Women’s foremost responsibility was mothering
45. The mixed Legacy of the
Enlightenment
Developed & popularized arguments about
natural rights
Elevated differences to a higher plane by
suggesting that nature dictated different
and possibly unequal social roles
Complex ideas about nature and its dictates about
social roles
Slavery and “civilized” vs. “uncivilized”
Meaning of Paternalism
Natural and unequal social roles
46. Print Capitalism and the Book
Trade
Enlightenment bound up in the expansion of
printing and print culture
Readers bought books from stores, subscription,
special mail order from book distributers abroad
Daily Newspapers appeared in London in 1702,
called “Dailies”
Freedom of the Press varied from place to place
Publishing licenses
England had few restrictions
France and Russia had many restrictions
Restrictions had little impact on pamphlets; minimal impact
even on books: censorship only made banned books
expensive
Literary underground
47. What is the Public
Sphere?
Informal deliberations, debates about how to
regenerate the nation, discussions of civic
virtue and efforts to forge a consensus of the
population moved politics beyond the
confines of the court into a “public” space
Expanding networks of social contact
Flourishing book trade
Circulation of Enlightenment ideas about humanity,
society, government, and reason
By the late 18th century, European
governments recognized the existence of a
civic minded group that cut across traditional
divisions of society and to which they needed
to respond
48. The Public Sphere
Elites had “learned societies” who published
books
New Frontiers of interaction between elites and
middle class
Salons
Informal gatherings of social and commercial elites in which
impoverished artists and scholars were welcome
Informal and formal patronages were created
Included both genders—aristocratic French women ruled French
salons
Madame Marie-Therese Geoffrin patron of Encyclopedia and influenced
placing scholars in Academies
Enabled elite women to exercise influence informally when they had
little formal power
Masonic Lodges
Members pledged themselves to regeneration of society
Attracted men across divisions of birth and wealth (egalitarian
behind closed doors)
49. The Public Sphere II
Middle Class—artisans and bureaucrats and
housewives
High literacy
Targeted by publishers
Circulation of books about science, history, geography,
travel and fiction
Means of control for middle class women
Etiquette
Running a household
Nutrition and meals
Raising children, especially daughters
Novels were most popular form of literature in Britain
Discussions of feeling and emotion linked middle class
with concern about personhood and humanity and natural
law