Describe about the heap memory management such as memory allocation & deallocation. Explained the Memory manager functionality and fragmentation issues.
Clock synchronization in distributed systemSunita Sahu
This document discusses several techniques for clock synchronization in distributed systems:
1. Time stamping events and messages with logical clocks to determine partial ordering without a global clock. Logical clocks assign monotonically increasing sequence numbers.
2. Clock synchronization algorithms like NTP that regularly adjust system clocks across the network to synchronize with a time server. NTP uses averaging to account for network delays.
3. Lamport's logical clocks algorithm that defines "happened before" relations and increments clocks between events to synchronize logical clocks across processes.
The document discusses various aspects of software quality assurance and usability testing. It begins by defining quality assurance tests and describing different testing strategies like black box testing and white box testing. It then discusses the impact of object orientation on testing and provides guidelines for preparing test cases and test plans. The document also talks about continuous testing, usability testing, and measuring user satisfaction. It provides details about planning and conducting usability tests, and developing customized forms for user satisfaction tests.
This document discusses various techniques for optimizing computer code, including:
1. Local optimizations that improve performance within basic blocks, such as constant folding, propagation, and elimination of redundant computations.
2. Global optimizations that analyze control flow across basic blocks, such as common subexpression elimination.
3. Loop optimizations that improve performance of loops by removing invariant data and induction variables.
4. Machine-dependent optimizations like peephole optimizations that replace instructions with more efficient alternatives.
The goal of optimizations is to improve speed and efficiency while preserving program meaning and correctness. Optimizations can occur at multiple stages of development and compilation.
Distributed shared memory (DSM) provides processes with a shared address space across distributed memory systems. DSM exists only virtually through primitives like read and write operations. It gives the illusion of physically shared memory while allowing loosely coupled distributed systems to share memory. DSM refers to applying this shared memory paradigm using distributed memory systems connected by a communication network. Each node has CPUs, memory, and blocks of shared memory can be cached locally but migrated on demand between nodes to maintain consistency.
Deadlock in distribute system by saeed siddikSaeed Siddik
The document discusses deadlocks in distributed systems, outlining the four conditions required for a deadlock, strategies to handle deadlocks such as ignoring, detecting, preventing, and avoiding them, and algorithms for centralized deadlock detection and distributed deadlock detection and prevention. It provides examples of resource allocation graphs to illustrate deadlock conditions and explains how distributed deadlock detection and prevention algorithms work.
OS Process Synchronization, semaphore and Monitorssgpraju
The document summarizes key concepts in process synchronization and concurrency control, including:
1) Process synchronization techniques like semaphores, monitors, and atomic transactions that ensure orderly access to shared resources. Semaphores use wait() and signal() operations while monitors provide mutual exclusion through condition variables.
2) Concurrency control algorithms like locking and two-phase locking that ensure serializability of concurrent transactions accessing a database. Locking associates locks with data items to control concurrent access.
3) Challenges in concurrency control like deadlocks, priority inversion, and starvation that synchronization mechanisms aim to prevent. Log-based recovery with write-ahead logging and checkpoints is used to ensure atomicity of transactions in
The document discusses heap memory management. It describes the heap as the portion of memory used for indefinitely stored data. A memory manager subsystem allocates and deallocates space in the heap. It keeps track of free space and serves as the interface between programs and the operating system. When allocating memory, the manager either uses available contiguous space or increases heap size from the OS. Deallocated space is returned to the free pool but memory is not returned to the OS when heap usage drops.
Clock synchronization in distributed systemSunita Sahu
This document discusses several techniques for clock synchronization in distributed systems:
1. Time stamping events and messages with logical clocks to determine partial ordering without a global clock. Logical clocks assign monotonically increasing sequence numbers.
2. Clock synchronization algorithms like NTP that regularly adjust system clocks across the network to synchronize with a time server. NTP uses averaging to account for network delays.
3. Lamport's logical clocks algorithm that defines "happened before" relations and increments clocks between events to synchronize logical clocks across processes.
The document discusses various aspects of software quality assurance and usability testing. It begins by defining quality assurance tests and describing different testing strategies like black box testing and white box testing. It then discusses the impact of object orientation on testing and provides guidelines for preparing test cases and test plans. The document also talks about continuous testing, usability testing, and measuring user satisfaction. It provides details about planning and conducting usability tests, and developing customized forms for user satisfaction tests.
This document discusses various techniques for optimizing computer code, including:
1. Local optimizations that improve performance within basic blocks, such as constant folding, propagation, and elimination of redundant computations.
2. Global optimizations that analyze control flow across basic blocks, such as common subexpression elimination.
3. Loop optimizations that improve performance of loops by removing invariant data and induction variables.
4. Machine-dependent optimizations like peephole optimizations that replace instructions with more efficient alternatives.
The goal of optimizations is to improve speed and efficiency while preserving program meaning and correctness. Optimizations can occur at multiple stages of development and compilation.
Distributed shared memory (DSM) provides processes with a shared address space across distributed memory systems. DSM exists only virtually through primitives like read and write operations. It gives the illusion of physically shared memory while allowing loosely coupled distributed systems to share memory. DSM refers to applying this shared memory paradigm using distributed memory systems connected by a communication network. Each node has CPUs, memory, and blocks of shared memory can be cached locally but migrated on demand between nodes to maintain consistency.
Deadlock in distribute system by saeed siddikSaeed Siddik
The document discusses deadlocks in distributed systems, outlining the four conditions required for a deadlock, strategies to handle deadlocks such as ignoring, detecting, preventing, and avoiding them, and algorithms for centralized deadlock detection and distributed deadlock detection and prevention. It provides examples of resource allocation graphs to illustrate deadlock conditions and explains how distributed deadlock detection and prevention algorithms work.
OS Process Synchronization, semaphore and Monitorssgpraju
The document summarizes key concepts in process synchronization and concurrency control, including:
1) Process synchronization techniques like semaphores, monitors, and atomic transactions that ensure orderly access to shared resources. Semaphores use wait() and signal() operations while monitors provide mutual exclusion through condition variables.
2) Concurrency control algorithms like locking and two-phase locking that ensure serializability of concurrent transactions accessing a database. Locking associates locks with data items to control concurrent access.
3) Challenges in concurrency control like deadlocks, priority inversion, and starvation that synchronization mechanisms aim to prevent. Log-based recovery with write-ahead logging and checkpoints is used to ensure atomicity of transactions in
The document discusses heap memory management. It describes the heap as the portion of memory used for indefinitely stored data. A memory manager subsystem allocates and deallocates space in the heap. It keeps track of free space and serves as the interface between programs and the operating system. When allocating memory, the manager either uses available contiguous space or increases heap size from the OS. Deallocated space is returned to the free pool but memory is not returned to the OS when heap usage drops.
This document discusses thrashing and allocation of frames in an operating system. It defines thrashing as when a processor spends most of its time swapping pieces of processes in and out rather than executing user instructions. This leads to low CPU utilization. It also discusses how to allocate a minimum number of frames to each process to prevent thrashing and ensure efficient paging.
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, media access control (MAC) data communication protocol is a sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2). The MAC sublayer provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multiple access network that incorporates a shared medium, e.g. an Ethernet network. The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a media access controller.
The MAC sublayer acts as an interface between the logical link control (LLC) sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.
The document summarizes key concepts in distributed database systems including:
1) Distributed database architectures have external, conceptual, and internal views of data. Common architectures include client-server and peer-to-peer.
2) Distributed databases can be designed top-down using a global schema or bottom-up without a global schema.
3) Fragmentation and allocation distribute data across sites for performance and availability. Correct fragmentation follows completeness, reconstruction, and disjointness rules.
Symmetric encryption uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt data, providing confidentiality. Keys must be distributed securely between parties. Common approaches involve using a key distribution center (KDC) that shares secret keys with parties and can provide temporary session keys. Link encryption protects data as it travels over each network link, while end-to-end encryption protects data for its entire journey but leaves some header data unencrypted. Key distribution, storage, renewal and replacement are important aspects of maintaining security when using symmetric encryption.
Concurrency Control in Distributed Database.Meghaj Mallick
The document discusses various techniques for concurrency control in distributed databases, including locking-based protocols and timestamp-based protocols. Locking-based protocols use exclusive and shared locks to control concurrent access to data items. They can be implemented using a single or distributed lock manager. Timestamp-based protocols assign each transaction a unique timestamp to determine serialization order and manage concurrent execution.
Replication in computing involves sharing information so as to ensure consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components, to improve reliability, fault-tolerance, or accessibility.
The document describes the backpropagation algorithm for training multilayer neural networks. It discusses how backpropagation uses gradient descent to minimize error between network outputs and targets by calculating error gradients with respect to weights. The algorithm iterates over examples, calculates error, computes gradients to update weights. Momentum can be added to help escape local minima. Backpropagation can learn representations in hidden layers and is prone to overfitting without validation data to select the best model.
Distributed Mutual Exclusion and Distributed Deadlock DetectionSHIKHA GAUTAM
This document summarizes key concepts related to distributed mutual exclusion and distributed deadlock detection. It discusses classification of distributed mutual exclusion algorithms into token-based and non-token-based approaches. For distributed mutual exclusion, it describes Lamport's algorithm, Ricart-Agrawala algorithm, Maekawa's quorum-based algorithm, and Suzuki-Kasami's token-based broadcast algorithm. It also discusses requirements for mutual exclusion such as freedom from deadlock and starvation. For distributed deadlock detection, it mentions the system model and types of deadlocks as well as approaches for prevention, avoidance, detection, and resolution of deadlocks.
1. There are two main approaches to distributed mutual exclusion - token-based and non-token based. Token based approaches use a shared token to allow only one process access at a time, while non-token approaches use message passing to determine access order.
2. A common token based algorithm uses a centralized coordinator process that grants access to the requesting process. Ring-based algorithms pass a token around a logical ring, allowing the process holding it to enter the critical section.
3. Lamport's non-token algorithm uses message passing of requests and timestamps to build identical request queues at each process, allowing the process at the head of the queue to enter the critical section. The Ricart-Agrawala
The document discusses deadlocks in computer systems. It defines deadlock, presents examples, and describes four conditions required for deadlock to occur. Several methods for handling deadlocks are discussed, including prevention, avoidance, detection, and recovery. Prevention methods aim to ensure deadlocks never occur, while avoidance allows the system to dynamically prevent unsafe states. Detection identifies when the system is in a deadlocked state.
Operating system 23 process synchronizationVaibhav Khanna
Processes can execute concurrently
May be interrupted at any time, partially completing execution
Concurrent access to shared data may result in data inconsistency
Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the orderly execution of cooperating processes
Illustration of the problem:Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers. We can do so by having an integer counter that keeps track of the number of full buffers. Initially, counter is set to 0. It is incremented by the producer after it produces a new buffer and is decremented by the consumer after it consumes a buffer
The document discusses various algorithms for achieving distributed mutual exclusion and process synchronization in distributed systems. It covers centralized, token ring, Ricart-Agrawala, Lamport, and decentralized algorithms. It also discusses election algorithms for selecting a coordinator process, including the Bully algorithm. The key techniques discussed are using logical clocks, message passing, and quorums to achieve mutual exclusion without a single point of failure.
Memory is encoded, stored, and retrieved through processes. Encoding allows external information to reach our senses. Memory allocation involves setting aside space, such as allocating hard drive space for an application. It places blocks of information in memory systems. To allocate memory, the memory management system tracks available memory and allocates only what is needed, keeping the rest available. If insufficient memory exists, blocks may be swapped. Static and dynamic allocation methods exist, with dynamic using nonpreemptive and preemptive allocation. Nonpreemptive allocation searches memory for available space for a transferring block. Preemptive allocation more efficiently uses memory through compaction. Different memory types store executable code, variables, and dynamically sized structures, with heap memory
Message and Stream Oriented CommunicationDilum Bandara
Message and Stream Oriented Communication in distributed systems. Persistent vs. Transient Communication. Event queues, Pub/sub networks, MPI, Stream-based communication, Multicast communication
Truth maintenance systems (TMS) are used to represent beliefs and their justifications in a knowledge base and maintain consistency when new information is added or inferred facts are retracted. A TMS models inferences as a dependency network and uses an algorithm to track which inferences need to be retracted if assumptions change. It differs from traditional logic which treats all facts equally. Nonmonotonic logics also use TMS to represent default reasoning and maintain beliefs when assumptions are defeated. Fuzzy logic uses similar concepts to handle imprecise values and measurements in systems like control applications.
- Directory structures organize files in a storage system and contain metadata about each file's name, location, size, and type. They allow operations like creating, searching, deleting, listing, and renaming files.
- Early systems used single-level directories with one list of all files, but this does not allow multiple files with the same name or grouping of files.
- Modern systems commonly use tree-structured directories that allow nesting files into subdirectories, making searching more efficient and allowing grouping of similar files. Directories can also be connected in acyclic graphs to enable sharing of files between directories through links.
Hierarchical clustering methods group data points into a hierarchy of clusters based on their distance or similarity. There are two main approaches: agglomerative, which starts with each point as a separate cluster and merges them; and divisive, which starts with all points in one cluster and splits them. AGNES and DIANA are common agglomerative and divisive algorithms. Hierarchical clustering represents the hierarchy as a dendrogram tree structure and allows exploring data at different granularities of clusters.
Global state recording in Distributed SystemsArsnet
This document describes algorithms for recording consistent global states (snapshots) in distributed systems. It discusses models of communication, system models, and issues in recording global states. It then summarizes the Spezialetti-Kearns algorithm for FIFO systems, which uses markers to distinguish messages to include in snapshots. For non-FIFO systems, it covers the Lai-Yang algorithm using message coloring and Mattern's algorithm based on vector clocks.
Load Balancing in Parallel and Distributed DatabaseMd. Shamsur Rahim
This document discusses load balancing techniques in distributed database systems. It describes different types of parallelism including inter-query, intra-query, intra-operation, and inter-operation parallelism. It also discusses problems that can occur with parallel execution such as initialization, interference, and skew. The document then focuses on techniques for load balancing within operators and between operators, including adaptive and specialized techniques. It describes how activations, activation queues, and threads can be used to improve load balancing in shared-memory systems.
Cache memory is a small, fast memory located close to the CPU that stores frequently accessed data from main memory to speed up processing. It is organized into multiple levels - L1 cache is inside the CPU, L2 cache is external, and main memory is L3. The cache improves performance by reducing access time - when data is in cache it is a "hit" and very fast to access, while a "miss" requires loading from main memory which is slower. Factors like cache size, mapping technique, replacement policy, and write strategy impact how efficiently it services memory requests.
memory managment on computer science.pptfootydigarse
Description:
This PowerPoint presentation delves into the critical realm of memory management, exploring strategies to optimize system performance and resource utilization. Beginning with an overview of memory management fundamentals, the presentation progresses to examine various memory management techniques employed in modern computing environments. Topics covered include memory allocation algorithms, memory fragmentation mitigation strategies, virtual memory concepts, and the role of caching mechanisms. Through illustrative diagrams, case studies, and real-world examples, the presentation offers insights into best practices for memory management across different computing platforms. Additionally, emerging trends and advancements in memory management technologies are explored, providing attendees with a comprehensive understanding of how to leverage memory management to enhance system efficiency, scalability, and reliability. Whether you're a seasoned IT professional, a software developer, or a student eager to expand your knowledge of memory management, this presentation offers valuable insights into the intricacies of memory optimization in contemporary computing systems.
This document discusses thrashing and allocation of frames in an operating system. It defines thrashing as when a processor spends most of its time swapping pieces of processes in and out rather than executing user instructions. This leads to low CPU utilization. It also discusses how to allocate a minimum number of frames to each process to prevent thrashing and ensure efficient paging.
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, media access control (MAC) data communication protocol is a sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2). The MAC sublayer provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multiple access network that incorporates a shared medium, e.g. an Ethernet network. The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a media access controller.
The MAC sublayer acts as an interface between the logical link control (LLC) sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.
The document summarizes key concepts in distributed database systems including:
1) Distributed database architectures have external, conceptual, and internal views of data. Common architectures include client-server and peer-to-peer.
2) Distributed databases can be designed top-down using a global schema or bottom-up without a global schema.
3) Fragmentation and allocation distribute data across sites for performance and availability. Correct fragmentation follows completeness, reconstruction, and disjointness rules.
Symmetric encryption uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt data, providing confidentiality. Keys must be distributed securely between parties. Common approaches involve using a key distribution center (KDC) that shares secret keys with parties and can provide temporary session keys. Link encryption protects data as it travels over each network link, while end-to-end encryption protects data for its entire journey but leaves some header data unencrypted. Key distribution, storage, renewal and replacement are important aspects of maintaining security when using symmetric encryption.
Concurrency Control in Distributed Database.Meghaj Mallick
The document discusses various techniques for concurrency control in distributed databases, including locking-based protocols and timestamp-based protocols. Locking-based protocols use exclusive and shared locks to control concurrent access to data items. They can be implemented using a single or distributed lock manager. Timestamp-based protocols assign each transaction a unique timestamp to determine serialization order and manage concurrent execution.
Replication in computing involves sharing information so as to ensure consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components, to improve reliability, fault-tolerance, or accessibility.
The document describes the backpropagation algorithm for training multilayer neural networks. It discusses how backpropagation uses gradient descent to minimize error between network outputs and targets by calculating error gradients with respect to weights. The algorithm iterates over examples, calculates error, computes gradients to update weights. Momentum can be added to help escape local minima. Backpropagation can learn representations in hidden layers and is prone to overfitting without validation data to select the best model.
Distributed Mutual Exclusion and Distributed Deadlock DetectionSHIKHA GAUTAM
This document summarizes key concepts related to distributed mutual exclusion and distributed deadlock detection. It discusses classification of distributed mutual exclusion algorithms into token-based and non-token-based approaches. For distributed mutual exclusion, it describes Lamport's algorithm, Ricart-Agrawala algorithm, Maekawa's quorum-based algorithm, and Suzuki-Kasami's token-based broadcast algorithm. It also discusses requirements for mutual exclusion such as freedom from deadlock and starvation. For distributed deadlock detection, it mentions the system model and types of deadlocks as well as approaches for prevention, avoidance, detection, and resolution of deadlocks.
1. There are two main approaches to distributed mutual exclusion - token-based and non-token based. Token based approaches use a shared token to allow only one process access at a time, while non-token approaches use message passing to determine access order.
2. A common token based algorithm uses a centralized coordinator process that grants access to the requesting process. Ring-based algorithms pass a token around a logical ring, allowing the process holding it to enter the critical section.
3. Lamport's non-token algorithm uses message passing of requests and timestamps to build identical request queues at each process, allowing the process at the head of the queue to enter the critical section. The Ricart-Agrawala
The document discusses deadlocks in computer systems. It defines deadlock, presents examples, and describes four conditions required for deadlock to occur. Several methods for handling deadlocks are discussed, including prevention, avoidance, detection, and recovery. Prevention methods aim to ensure deadlocks never occur, while avoidance allows the system to dynamically prevent unsafe states. Detection identifies when the system is in a deadlocked state.
Operating system 23 process synchronizationVaibhav Khanna
Processes can execute concurrently
May be interrupted at any time, partially completing execution
Concurrent access to shared data may result in data inconsistency
Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the orderly execution of cooperating processes
Illustration of the problem:Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers. We can do so by having an integer counter that keeps track of the number of full buffers. Initially, counter is set to 0. It is incremented by the producer after it produces a new buffer and is decremented by the consumer after it consumes a buffer
The document discusses various algorithms for achieving distributed mutual exclusion and process synchronization in distributed systems. It covers centralized, token ring, Ricart-Agrawala, Lamport, and decentralized algorithms. It also discusses election algorithms for selecting a coordinator process, including the Bully algorithm. The key techniques discussed are using logical clocks, message passing, and quorums to achieve mutual exclusion without a single point of failure.
Memory is encoded, stored, and retrieved through processes. Encoding allows external information to reach our senses. Memory allocation involves setting aside space, such as allocating hard drive space for an application. It places blocks of information in memory systems. To allocate memory, the memory management system tracks available memory and allocates only what is needed, keeping the rest available. If insufficient memory exists, blocks may be swapped. Static and dynamic allocation methods exist, with dynamic using nonpreemptive and preemptive allocation. Nonpreemptive allocation searches memory for available space for a transferring block. Preemptive allocation more efficiently uses memory through compaction. Different memory types store executable code, variables, and dynamically sized structures, with heap memory
Message and Stream Oriented CommunicationDilum Bandara
Message and Stream Oriented Communication in distributed systems. Persistent vs. Transient Communication. Event queues, Pub/sub networks, MPI, Stream-based communication, Multicast communication
Truth maintenance systems (TMS) are used to represent beliefs and their justifications in a knowledge base and maintain consistency when new information is added or inferred facts are retracted. A TMS models inferences as a dependency network and uses an algorithm to track which inferences need to be retracted if assumptions change. It differs from traditional logic which treats all facts equally. Nonmonotonic logics also use TMS to represent default reasoning and maintain beliefs when assumptions are defeated. Fuzzy logic uses similar concepts to handle imprecise values and measurements in systems like control applications.
- Directory structures organize files in a storage system and contain metadata about each file's name, location, size, and type. They allow operations like creating, searching, deleting, listing, and renaming files.
- Early systems used single-level directories with one list of all files, but this does not allow multiple files with the same name or grouping of files.
- Modern systems commonly use tree-structured directories that allow nesting files into subdirectories, making searching more efficient and allowing grouping of similar files. Directories can also be connected in acyclic graphs to enable sharing of files between directories through links.
Hierarchical clustering methods group data points into a hierarchy of clusters based on their distance or similarity. There are two main approaches: agglomerative, which starts with each point as a separate cluster and merges them; and divisive, which starts with all points in one cluster and splits them. AGNES and DIANA are common agglomerative and divisive algorithms. Hierarchical clustering represents the hierarchy as a dendrogram tree structure and allows exploring data at different granularities of clusters.
Global state recording in Distributed SystemsArsnet
This document describes algorithms for recording consistent global states (snapshots) in distributed systems. It discusses models of communication, system models, and issues in recording global states. It then summarizes the Spezialetti-Kearns algorithm for FIFO systems, which uses markers to distinguish messages to include in snapshots. For non-FIFO systems, it covers the Lai-Yang algorithm using message coloring and Mattern's algorithm based on vector clocks.
Load Balancing in Parallel and Distributed DatabaseMd. Shamsur Rahim
This document discusses load balancing techniques in distributed database systems. It describes different types of parallelism including inter-query, intra-query, intra-operation, and inter-operation parallelism. It also discusses problems that can occur with parallel execution such as initialization, interference, and skew. The document then focuses on techniques for load balancing within operators and between operators, including adaptive and specialized techniques. It describes how activations, activation queues, and threads can be used to improve load balancing in shared-memory systems.
Cache memory is a small, fast memory located close to the CPU that stores frequently accessed data from main memory to speed up processing. It is organized into multiple levels - L1 cache is inside the CPU, L2 cache is external, and main memory is L3. The cache improves performance by reducing access time - when data is in cache it is a "hit" and very fast to access, while a "miss" requires loading from main memory which is slower. Factors like cache size, mapping technique, replacement policy, and write strategy impact how efficiently it services memory requests.
memory managment on computer science.pptfootydigarse
Description:
This PowerPoint presentation delves into the critical realm of memory management, exploring strategies to optimize system performance and resource utilization. Beginning with an overview of memory management fundamentals, the presentation progresses to examine various memory management techniques employed in modern computing environments. Topics covered include memory allocation algorithms, memory fragmentation mitigation strategies, virtual memory concepts, and the role of caching mechanisms. Through illustrative diagrams, case studies, and real-world examples, the presentation offers insights into best practices for memory management across different computing platforms. Additionally, emerging trends and advancements in memory management technologies are explored, providing attendees with a comprehensive understanding of how to leverage memory management to enhance system efficiency, scalability, and reliability. Whether you're a seasoned IT professional, a software developer, or a student eager to expand your knowledge of memory management, this presentation offers valuable insights into the intricacies of memory optimization in contemporary computing systems.
The document discusses various topics related to memory management in operating systems including swapping, contiguous memory allocation, paging, segmentation, virtual memory concepts like demand paging, page replacement, and thrashing. It provides details on page tables, segmentation hardware, logical to physical address translation, and performance aspects of demand paging. The key aspects covered are memory management techniques to overcome fragmentation and enable efficient use of limited main memory.
Memory management is important for mobile devices with limited memory. There are several strategies for allocating variables to memory areas like the stack and heap. Design patterns for limited memory include using linear data structures, reusing objects, and compressing data. In mobile Java, avoiding small classes, dependencies, and unnecessary objects can reduce memory usage. Strategies also include using StringBuffers and efficiently handling arrays and strings.
Techniques for Writing Embedded Code: Memory Management, Types of Memory, Making the Most of Your RAM, Performance and Battery Life, Libraries, Debugging, Business Models: A Short History of Business Models, Space and Time, From Craft to Mass Production, The Long Tail of the Internet, Learning from History, The Business Model Canvas, Who Is the Business Model For? Models, Make Thing, Sell Thing, Subscriptions, Customisation, Be a Key Resource, Provide Infrastructure: Sensor Networks, Take a Percentage, Funding an Internet of Things Startup, Hobby Projects and Open Source, Venture Capital, Government Funding, Crowdfunding, Lean Startups.
This document discusses memory management techniques in operating systems. It defines memory management as the functionality that handles primary memory and moves processes between main memory and disk. It describes process address spaces and different types of addresses. It also covers static vs dynamic loading and linking, swapping, memory allocation, fragmentation, paging, segmentation, and address translation. Paging breaks processes into fixed-size blocks called pages, while segmentation divides processes into variable-length segments. The operating system uses techniques like page mapping tables, segment maps, and memory compaction to manage memory.
UNIT 3-EXPLAINING THE MEMORY MANAGEMENT LOGICAL AND AND PHYSICAL DATA FLOW DI...LeahRachael
The document discusses different memory management techniques used in operating systems. It describes logical and physical addresses, and how memory management is the responsibility of the operating system. It then explains address binding, which maps logical addresses to physical addresses. Next, it covers overlays, which allow multiple programs to share memory by swapping parts in and out. It notes the advantages and disadvantages of overlays. Finally, it briefly discusses contiguous allocation, which allocates memory to a process in a single continuous block.
This document discusses run-time addressing and storage of variables in programming. It covers how variables are accessed using offsets from frames or stacks. It also discusses variable-length local data and how it can be allocated dynamically on the stack or heap. The document then covers scope, static and dynamic scoping rules, and how static links are used to access non-local variables at run-time.
This document discusses the differences between the stack and the heap in computing memory. The stack is a temporary storage area where function variables are stored. Data is added or removed in a last-in, first-out manner. The stack has a fixed size and data is automatically deleted when a function exits. The heap is used for dynamic memory allocation and data remains until manually deleted. The stack is faster than the heap for memory allocation due to its structure. Examples are given showing how variables are allocated on the stack or heap.
This document provides an overview of memory management techniques in operating systems, including both static and dynamic allocation approaches. It discusses fixed and variable partitioning for static allocation, as well as first-fit, next-fit, best-fit, and worst-fit algorithms for dynamic allocation. The document also covers fragmentation, base-limit registers, swapping, paging, and segmentation for virtual memory management. The key aspects of paging include using page tables to map virtual to physical addresses, allowing sharing and abstracting physical organization. Segmentation divides memory into logical segments specified by segment tables.
Operating System
Topic Memory Management
for Btech/Bsc (C.S)/BCA...
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or manages primary memory. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how much memory is to be allocated to processes. It decides which process will get memory at what time. It tracks whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and correspondingly it updates the status.
Dynamic memory allocation involves reserving blocks of memory at runtime using functions like malloc(), calloc(), and realloc(). Memory is allocated on the heap, which grows as needed, unlike the stack which has a fixed size. Variables on the heap must be manually freed with free() to avoid memory leaks. Proper memory management is important for application performance and security.
Operating systems use main memory management techniques like paging and segmentation to allocate memory to processes efficiently. Paging divides both logical and physical memory into fixed-size pages. It uses a page table to map logical page numbers to physical frame numbers. This allows processes to be allocated non-contiguous physical frames. A translation lookaside buffer (TLB) caches recent page translations to improve performance by avoiding slow accesses to the page table in memory. Protection bits and valid/invalid bits ensure processes only access their allocated memory regions.
1. SSTables and LSM Trees are commonly used strategies for storage and retrieval of data in databases. They involve writing incoming data to an in-memory data structure and periodically flushing this to disk in sorted, immutable SSTables. Background compaction merges and sorts SSTables for efficient reads.
2. There are various strategies for replicating data across multiple machines including single-leader replication where one machine acts as the leader and receives all writes, propagating changes to followers. Handling leader failures requires electing a new leader and catching followers up.
Memory Management in the Java Virtual Machine(Garbage collection)Prashanth Kumar
The document discusses memory management and garbage collection in the Java Virtual Machine. It describes how the JVM uses automatic memory management via a garbage collector to allocate and free memory for objects. It covers key concepts of garbage collection like reachability and generations. It also discusses design choices for garbage collectors, such as serial vs parallel and compacting vs non-compacting. Finally, it provides details on the garbage collectors used in HotSpot JVMs, including the serial, parallel and parallel compacting collectors.
The document discusses selecting the right cache framework for applications. It begins by defining caching and its benefits, such as improving data access speed by storing portions of data in faster memory. It then covers types of caches including web, data, application, and distributed caching. Next, it examines caching algorithms like FIFO, LRU, LFU and their characteristics. The document also reviews cache expiration models and then provides details on several popular cache frameworks like EhCache, JBoss Cache, OSCache and their features. It concludes by mentioning some potential drawbacks of caching like stale data and overhead.
The document discusses different levels of computer memory and cache memory. It describes four levels of memory:
1) Register - Stores data accepted by the CPU.
2) Cache memory - Faster memory that temporarily stores frequently accessed data from main memory.
3) Main memory - The memory the computer currently works on but data is lost when powered off.
4) Secondary memory - External memory that stores data permanently but is slower than main memory.
It then discusses cache memory in more detail, describing it as very high-speed memory that stores copies of frequently used data from main memory to reduce average access time. It explains the concepts of cache hits, misses, and hit ratio. Finally, it
This Presentation is for Memory Management in Operating System (OS). This Presentation describes the basic need for the Memory Management in our OS and its various Techniques like Swapping, Fragmentation, Paging and Segmentation.
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Overview
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2. Heap
•Portion of the store used for data that lives
indefinitely or until explicitly deleted by the
program
3. Memory Manager
• The task of MM is to keep track of all the free space that can
be available in the heap
• The subsystem that allocates and deallocates space within
the heap
• Serves as an interface between application programs and
the operating system
4. Memory Allocation
Produces a chunk of contiguous heap memory of the
requested size
If no chunk of the needed size is available, it increases the
heap storage by getting consecutive bytes of virtual
memory from the OS
5. Memory Deallocation
Returns deallocated space to the pool of free space
(so it can reuse the space)
Typically does not return memory to the OS, even if
heap usage drops.
6. Properties of Memory Manager
• Space Efficiency-A MM should minimize the total heap
space needed by a program.
• Program Efficiency-A MM should make good use of the
memory sub system to allow programs to run faster.
• Low Overhead -Allocation and deallocation are frequent
operations in many programs hence to minimize the
overhead - the fraction of execution time spent performing
allocation and deallocation.
7. Memory Hierarchy of a Computer
• Compiler optimization is very much dependent upon the memory management
technique.
• The efficiency of the program is determined by the
• No of instruction getting executed
• The amount of time required by each instruction for execution.
• The time taken by the instruction to execute greatly depends upon how much
time it takes to access different parts of the memory.
• During Memory access the data is looked in the lower level of memory and if is
not found there then the next level is accessed and so on.
• A processors has several registers which can be controlled by the software.
9. Locality in Programs
• Most programs exhibit a high degree of locality; that is, they spend
most of their time executing a relatively small fraction of the code
and touching only a small fraction of the data.
Two types of Locality
• A program has temporal locality if the memory locations it accesses
are likely to be accessed again within a short period of time.
• A program has spatial locality if memory locations close to the
location accessed are likely also to be accessed within a short period
of time.
90/10 Rule comes from the
empirical observation:
“A program spends 90% of its
time in 10% of its code.”
10. Optimization Using the Memory Hierarchy
• Keeping the most recently used instructions in the cache tends to work
well
• When a new instruction is executed, there is a high probability that the
next instruction also will be executed.
• To improve the spatial locality of instructions is to have the compiler place
basic blocks (sequences of instructions that are always executed
sequentially) that are likely to follow each other contiguously - on the
same page, or even the same cache line, if possible.
• Instructions belonging to the same loop or same function also have a high
probability of being executed together.
• We can also improve the temporal and spatial locality of data accesses in a
program by changing the data layout or the order of the computation
11. Reducing Fragmentation
• At the beginning of program execution, the heap is one contiguous unit of free
space.
• As the program allocates and deallocates memory, this space is broken up into
free and used chunks of memory, and the free chunks need not reside in a
contiguous area of the heap.
• We refer to the free chunks of memory as holes.
• With each allocation request, the memory manager must place the requested
chunk of memory into a large-enough hole.
• With each deallocation request, the freed chunks of memory are added back to
the pool of free space.
• We coalesce contiguous holes into larger holes, as the holes can only get smaller
otherwise.
• The memory may end up getting fragmented, consisting of large numbers of
small, noncontiguous holes.
• It is then possible that no hole is large enough to satisfy a future request, even
though there may be sufficient aggregate free space
12. Best-Fit and Next-Fit Object Placement
• We reduce fragmentation by controlling how the memory manager places
new objects in the heap.
• Best-fit - To allocate the requested memory in the smallest available hole
that is large enough. Helps to spare the large holes to satisfy subsequent,
larger requests.
• First-fit, where an object is placed in the first (lowest-address) hole in
which it fits, takes less time to place objects, but has been found inferior to
best-fit in overall performance.
• To implement best-fit placement more efficiently, we can separate free
space into bins, according to their sizes.
• One practical idea is to have many more bins for the smaller sizes, because
there are usually many more small objects.
13. Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem
• How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes
First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough
Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must
search entire list, unless ordered by size
Produces the smallest leftover hole
Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list
Produces the largest leftover hole
14. Managing and Coalescing Free Space
• When an object is deallocated manually, the memory manager must
make its chunk free, so it can be allocated again.
• In some circumstances, it may also be possible to combine (coalesce)
that chunk with adjacent chunks of the heap, to form a larger
chunk.
• If we keep a bin for chunks of one fixed size, then we may prefer not
to coalesce adjacent blocks of that size into a chunk of double the
size.
15. Coalescing of adjacent free blocks
• There are two data structures that are useful to support coalescing of adjacent free
blocks:
• Boundary Tags.
• At both ends, we keep a free/used bit that tells whether or not the block is
currently allocated (used) or available (free).
• Adjacent to each free/used bit is a count of the total number of bytes in the chunk.
• A Doubly Linked, Embedded Free List.
• The free chunks (but not the allocated chunks) are also linked in a doubly linked
list.
• The pointers for this list are within the blocks themselves, say adjacent to the
boundary tags at either end.
• Thus, no additional space is needed for the free list; they must accommodate two
boundary tags and two pointers, even if the object is a single byte.
• The order of chunks on the free list is left unspecified. For example, the list could be
sorted by size, thus facilitating best-fit placement.
16. Manual Deallocation Request
• Manual memory management is error-prone. The common mistakes
take two forms:
• Failing ever to delete data that cannot be referenced is called a
memory leak error
• Automatic garbage collection gets rid of memory leaks by
deallocating all the garbage.
• Referencing deleted data is a dangling-pointer-dereference error.
• A related form of programming error is to access an illegal address.
Common examples of such errors include dereferencing null pointers
and accessing an out-of-bounds array element.
17. Dangling pointers
• The second common mistake is to delete some storage and then try
to refer to the data in the deallocated storage. Pointers to storage
that has been deallocated are known as dangling pointers.
• Once the freed storage has been reallocated to a new variable, any
read, write, or deallocation via the dangling pointer can produce
seemingly random effects. We refer to any operation, such as read,
write, or deallocate, that follows a pointer and tries to use the object
it points to, as dereferencing the pointer
• Dereferencing a dangling pointer after the freed storage is reallocated
almost always creates a program error that is hard to debug
18. Programming Conventions and Tools
Tools to help programmers in managing memory:
• Object ownership is useful when an object's lifetime can be statically
reasoned about.
• The idea is to associate an owner with each object at all times.
• The owner is a pointer to that object, presumably belonging to some
function invocation.
• The owner (i.e., its function) is responsible for either deleting the
object or for passing the object to another owner
19. Programming Conventions and Tools
• Reference counting is useful when an object's lifetime needs to be
determined dynamically.
• The idea is to associate a count with each dynamically allocated
object.
• Whenever a reference to the object is created, we increment the
reference count; whenever a reference is removed, we decrement the
reference count.
• When the count goes to zero, the object can no longer be
referenced and can therefore be deleted
20. Programming Conventions and Tools
• Region-based allocation is useful for collections of objects whose
lifetimes are tied to specific phases in a computation.
• When objects are created to be used only within some step of a
computation, we can allocate all such objects in the same region.
• We then delete the entire region once that computation step
completes.
21. References
• Alfred V. Aho, Monica S. Lam, Ravi Sethi, Jeffrey D. Ullman, Compilers:
Principles, Techniques and Tools, Second Edition, Pearson Education,
2009.