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Sensors are the first element in a measuring system that takes information about a variable being measured and transforms it into a suitable form. Sensors directly measure a physical quantity and transducers convert one form of energy into another. Sensors are essential in robotics for safety monitoring, work cell control, quality inspection, and collecting data. Common sensors used in robotics include position sensors like potentiometers and encoders, proximity sensors, force/torque sensors, and range finders. Temperature can be measured by resistive sensors like thermistors or thermocouples that relate a change in resistance or voltage to a change in temperature.
This document discusses the use of sensors in robotics. It begins by introducing how sensors give robots human-like sensing abilities like vision, touch, hearing, and movement. It then describes several key sensors used in robotics - vision sensors that allow robots to see their environment, touch sensors that allow robots to feel contact and interpret emotions, and hearing sensors that allow robots to perceive speech. The document also lists and describes other common sensors like proximity, range, tactile, light, sound, temperature, contact, voltage, and current sensors and their applications in robotics.
This document provides an overview of sensors used in robots. It discusses that sensors allow robots to perceive their environment and perform tasks reliably. The document then describes various types of internal sensors like position, velocity, force sensors and external sensors like proximity, range finding, color and motion sensors. It provides details on specific position sensors like potentiometers, optical encoders, LVDTs and magnetic sensors. The document also discusses velocity sensors such as encoders and tachometers. Finally, it mentions new developments in sensor technology including MEMS, MOEMS and smart sensors, and provides an example of the humanoid robot ASIMO which utilizes various sensors for functions like vision, balance and intelligence.
Sensors are used by robots for various purposes like localization, obstacle detection, and gathering internal information. There are two main types of sensors - exteroceptors that detect external stimuli and proprioceptors that detect internal conditions. Contact sensors like touch and force sensors measure properties by physical contact while non-contact sensors like proximity sensors detect presence and position without touching. Proximity sensors can be optical, photoelectric, acoustic, or capacitive and precisely measure the distance to an object.
Sensors are at the core of every modern invention.
In these couple of slides I describe a couple of them and how they are connected to microcontroller pins.
VARIOUS SENSOR USED IN ROBOTICS WITH APPLICATIONS | J4RV3I12003Journal For Research
This paper gives brief introduction about various sensors used in robotics and their applications. A sensor is a device that detects the changes in electrical or physical or other quantities and thereby produces an output and whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment and send the information to other electronic devices. Robotic sensors are used to estimate robots condition and environment. Sensors in robots are based on the functions of human sensory organs. Sensors used in robots provide intelligence to the robot and improve their performance.
Sensors are the first element in a measuring system that takes information about a variable being measured and transforms it into a suitable form. Sensors directly measure a physical quantity and transducers convert one form of energy into another. Sensors are essential in robotics for safety monitoring, work cell control, quality inspection, and collecting data. Common sensors used in robotics include position sensors like potentiometers and encoders, proximity sensors, force/torque sensors, and range finders. Temperature can be measured by resistive sensors like thermistors or thermocouples that relate a change in resistance or voltage to a change in temperature.
This document discusses the use of sensors in robotics. It begins by introducing how sensors give robots human-like sensing abilities like vision, touch, hearing, and movement. It then describes several key sensors used in robotics - vision sensors that allow robots to see their environment, touch sensors that allow robots to feel contact and interpret emotions, and hearing sensors that allow robots to perceive speech. The document also lists and describes other common sensors like proximity, range, tactile, light, sound, temperature, contact, voltage, and current sensors and their applications in robotics.
This document provides an overview of sensors used in robots. It discusses that sensors allow robots to perceive their environment and perform tasks reliably. The document then describes various types of internal sensors like position, velocity, force sensors and external sensors like proximity, range finding, color and motion sensors. It provides details on specific position sensors like potentiometers, optical encoders, LVDTs and magnetic sensors. The document also discusses velocity sensors such as encoders and tachometers. Finally, it mentions new developments in sensor technology including MEMS, MOEMS and smart sensors, and provides an example of the humanoid robot ASIMO which utilizes various sensors for functions like vision, balance and intelligence.
Sensors are used by robots for various purposes like localization, obstacle detection, and gathering internal information. There are two main types of sensors - exteroceptors that detect external stimuli and proprioceptors that detect internal conditions. Contact sensors like touch and force sensors measure properties by physical contact while non-contact sensors like proximity sensors detect presence and position without touching. Proximity sensors can be optical, photoelectric, acoustic, or capacitive and precisely measure the distance to an object.
Sensors are at the core of every modern invention.
In these couple of slides I describe a couple of them and how they are connected to microcontroller pins.
VARIOUS SENSOR USED IN ROBOTICS WITH APPLICATIONS | J4RV3I12003Journal For Research
This paper gives brief introduction about various sensors used in robotics and their applications. A sensor is a device that detects the changes in electrical or physical or other quantities and thereby produces an output and whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment and send the information to other electronic devices. Robotic sensors are used to estimate robots condition and environment. Sensors in robots are based on the functions of human sensory organs. Sensors used in robots provide intelligence to the robot and improve their performance.
This document discusses various types of sensors used for robotics and control applications. It covers kinematic sensing technologies like resolvers, absolute encoders, and incremental encoders. It also discusses environmental sensors including contact sensors, tactile arrays, and proximity sensors. The key types of sensors are described in terms of their operating principles and how they provide positional or environmental feedback for robot control systems.
There are many different types of sensors that can be used for various purposes based on their operating principles and outputs. Sensors can sense physical quantities like pressure, temperature, distance and detect properties of materials. They are classified according to their power source, output signal and detection method. Common sensor types include optical sensors, proximity sensors, switches, and those that detect specific physical quantities. Proximity sensors include inductive, capacitive and ultrasonic varieties. Limit switches can be configured for momentary or maintained operation. Digital and analog sensors provide different output signal types. Application of sensors depends on the sensing requirement.
The document discusses sensors and their uses in manufacturing. It defines a sensor as a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a readable form. Sensors are then classified into different types including tactile, proximity, range, miscellaneous, and machine vision sensors. Examples are provided for each type along with their working principles and applications in robotics and manufacturing for tasks like distance sensing, contour tracking, machine vision, process monitoring, and quality control. Key desirable sensor features and concepts like accuracy vs precision are also covered at a high level.
The document discusses sensors used in aircraft autopilot systems. An automatic flight control system uses various sensors to monitor speed, height, position, doors, obstacles, fuel and maneuvers. A computer receives data from these sensors, compares it to pre-designed values, and provides control signals to engines, flaps, and rudders to enable smooth autonomous flight. Sensors provide input to computers, which are the system's brains, and mechanics provide the outputs to control aircraft systems.
This document summarizes an introduction to sensors workshop given at Polytechnic University. It defines what sensors are, describes different types of detectable phenomena that can be measured by sensors, and explains several common physical principles that sensors use to operate. The document then discusses why sensors are needed, factors to consider when choosing a sensor, and provides details on several specific sensor types including temperature, accelerometer, light, magnetic field, ultrasonic, photogate, and CO2 gas sensors.
Sensors are devices that measure physical quantities and convert them into signals that can be read by observers or instruments. They are used in many applications from cars and machines to medicine and more. Sensors come in different types including optical sensors, which detect light, and biosensors, which are used in biomedical applications and detect biological components. The resolution of a sensor refers to the smallest change it can detect in the measured quantity.
The document discusses smart sensors, providing details on their architecture, fabrication, advantages, disadvantages and applications. Some key points:
- Smart sensors integrate a sensor, analog/digital converter, processor and communication interface on a single chip, allowing them to process and communicate sensor data.
- The basic architecture includes a sensing element, amplifier, ADC, memory, processor and communication components. Fabrication uses techniques like micro-machining and bonding.
- Advantages are reduced system load and faster operation. Applications include industrial monitoring, automotive controls, biomedical devices, and smart dust networks of tiny sensors. Disadvantages include higher initial costs and issues with mixing old and new devices.
Chapter5 sensors of robots automation latestAdib Ezio
This chapter discusses sensors used in robot automation. It describes different types of sensors including velocity, acceleration, and position sensors. Velocity sensors measure medium to low frequencies and act as low-pass filters. Acceleration sensors measure the highest frequencies using piezoelectric, strain gage, or servo accelerometers. Position sensors include potentiometers, resolvers, optical encoders, and linear variable differential transformers (LVDT). The chapter concludes by discussing applications of robot sensors in industries like using contact sensors to detect welding seams or non-contact through-the-arc sensors to detect welding parameters.
Tactile sensors and their robotic applicationsAasheesh Tandon
This presentation discusses about artificial tactile sensors, it's comparison with human tactile senses. Further different types of tactile sensors are enlisted ,with a few given in more detail.
Robotic applications are also discussed and then finally future developments in this area is mentioned.
This document discusses several types of advanced sensors. It begins by distinguishing between analog and digital sensors, with analog sensors producing continuous outputs and digital sensors producing discrete outputs. It then examines several specific sensor types in more detail, including position sensors like potentiometers; temperature sensors like thermostats and thermocouples; light sensors such as photoresistors; and motion sensors including passive infrared and ultrasonic sensors. The document concludes by noting the wide variety of advanced sensors that can perform different functions.
This document discusses different types of smart sensors. It begins by defining a sensor as a device that detects environmental changes and responds with an output. It states that combining a sensor with interfacing hardware creates a smart sensor. It then lists and provides brief descriptions of 9 common types of smart sensors: temperature sensors, proximity sensors, pressure sensors, gas and smoke sensors, accelerometer sensors, level sensors, motion detection sensors, optical sensors, and gyroscope sensors.
Sensors are devices that convert physical parameters into electrical signals that can be measured. They work by transmitting light or infrared radiation onto an object, and a receiver detects the reflected light. The signal is then amplified and processed. There are different types of sensors for factory and process automation, including inductive, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic, and temperature, pressure, level, and flow sensors. Sensors play a key role in automation by enabling control systems across various industries like manufacturing, food processing, and more, making lives easier, safer, and more productive through increased automation.
Requirements of a sensor, Principles and Applications of the following types of sensors- Position sensors - Piezo Electric Sensor, LVDT, Resolvers, Optical Encoders, pneumatic Position Sensors, Range Sensors Triangulations Principles, Structured, Lighting Approach, Time of Flight, Range Finders, Laser Range Meters, Touch Sensors ,binary Sensors., Analog Sensors, Wrist Sensors, Compliance Sensors, Slip Sensors, Camera, Frame Grabber, Sensing and Digitizing Image Data- Signal Conversion, Image Storage, Lighting Techniques, Image Processing and Analysis-Data Reduction, Segmentation, Feature Extraction, Object Recognition, Other Algorithms, Applications- Inspection, Identification, Visual Serving and Navigation.
This Presentation provides some basics of Sensors Technology.........
It gives few ideas to learn about sensors which are as normally used as electrical & electronics applications.......
Warren Johnson invented the first modern sensor, an electric thermostat, in 1883. Samuel Bagno then invented the first motion sensor in the early 1950s for use in alarm systems, using ultrasonic frequencies and the Doppler effect. Sensors have since evolved for various uses such as temperature, light, humidity, vibration, gas, and motion detection in applications like vehicles, security systems, air traffic control, and more. Motion sensors in particular have military applications like land mines and helped track enemy movement in World War II.
A light sensor detects ambient light levels and can include photoresistors, photodiodes, or phototransistors. It works by measuring changes in electrical resistance, voltage, or current caused by exposure to light. Light sensors have a wide range of applications including in street lights, cameras, alarms, and automatic lighting controls.
This document provides an overview of a student project report on sensors in everyday life. It begins with an acknowledgment thanking the project guide. The table of contents lists various sensors that will be discussed including accelerometers, anemometers, blood pressure sensors, CO2 gas sensors, current sensors, ECG sensors, and others. Descriptions of some common sensors are then provided, explaining what they measure and their basic functioning, such as how accelerometers measure acceleration, anemometers measure wind speed, and blood pressure sensors use an occlusive cuff to measure blood pressure.
Sensors in Different Application Area Topics Covered: Occupancy and Motion Detectors; Position, Displacement, and Level; Velocity and Acceleration; Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensors; Pressure Sensors, Temperature Sensors
Emerging Trends in Sensor Application in Industrial Scenario.pptxBikashDas76792
The document discusses sensors and temperature sensors. It defines a sensor as a device that detects and responds to physical input from the environment and converts it into a readable signal. It then discusses different types of temperature sensors like thermocouples, thermistors, and RTDs that detect temperature changes by measuring properties like voltage, resistance, or current. Finally, it provides examples of infrared temperature sensors and optical pyrometers that can measure the temperature of moving or hot objects non-contactly and discusses common temperature sensor uses.
Different types of Sensors used in Mechatronics.pptsadanand50
An eddy current proximity sensor detects conductive objects using a coil that generates an oscillating magnetic field, inducing eddy currents in nearby objects. When a conductive object enters the field, it alters the coil's impedance, generating a signal indicating the object's presence and distance. These non-contact sensors can detect various materials and operate reliably in harsh environments.
This document discusses various types of sensors used for robotics and control applications. It covers kinematic sensing technologies like resolvers, absolute encoders, and incremental encoders. It also discusses environmental sensors including contact sensors, tactile arrays, and proximity sensors. The key types of sensors are described in terms of their operating principles and how they provide positional or environmental feedback for robot control systems.
There are many different types of sensors that can be used for various purposes based on their operating principles and outputs. Sensors can sense physical quantities like pressure, temperature, distance and detect properties of materials. They are classified according to their power source, output signal and detection method. Common sensor types include optical sensors, proximity sensors, switches, and those that detect specific physical quantities. Proximity sensors include inductive, capacitive and ultrasonic varieties. Limit switches can be configured for momentary or maintained operation. Digital and analog sensors provide different output signal types. Application of sensors depends on the sensing requirement.
The document discusses sensors and their uses in manufacturing. It defines a sensor as a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a readable form. Sensors are then classified into different types including tactile, proximity, range, miscellaneous, and machine vision sensors. Examples are provided for each type along with their working principles and applications in robotics and manufacturing for tasks like distance sensing, contour tracking, machine vision, process monitoring, and quality control. Key desirable sensor features and concepts like accuracy vs precision are also covered at a high level.
The document discusses sensors used in aircraft autopilot systems. An automatic flight control system uses various sensors to monitor speed, height, position, doors, obstacles, fuel and maneuvers. A computer receives data from these sensors, compares it to pre-designed values, and provides control signals to engines, flaps, and rudders to enable smooth autonomous flight. Sensors provide input to computers, which are the system's brains, and mechanics provide the outputs to control aircraft systems.
This document summarizes an introduction to sensors workshop given at Polytechnic University. It defines what sensors are, describes different types of detectable phenomena that can be measured by sensors, and explains several common physical principles that sensors use to operate. The document then discusses why sensors are needed, factors to consider when choosing a sensor, and provides details on several specific sensor types including temperature, accelerometer, light, magnetic field, ultrasonic, photogate, and CO2 gas sensors.
Sensors are devices that measure physical quantities and convert them into signals that can be read by observers or instruments. They are used in many applications from cars and machines to medicine and more. Sensors come in different types including optical sensors, which detect light, and biosensors, which are used in biomedical applications and detect biological components. The resolution of a sensor refers to the smallest change it can detect in the measured quantity.
The document discusses smart sensors, providing details on their architecture, fabrication, advantages, disadvantages and applications. Some key points:
- Smart sensors integrate a sensor, analog/digital converter, processor and communication interface on a single chip, allowing them to process and communicate sensor data.
- The basic architecture includes a sensing element, amplifier, ADC, memory, processor and communication components. Fabrication uses techniques like micro-machining and bonding.
- Advantages are reduced system load and faster operation. Applications include industrial monitoring, automotive controls, biomedical devices, and smart dust networks of tiny sensors. Disadvantages include higher initial costs and issues with mixing old and new devices.
Chapter5 sensors of robots automation latestAdib Ezio
This chapter discusses sensors used in robot automation. It describes different types of sensors including velocity, acceleration, and position sensors. Velocity sensors measure medium to low frequencies and act as low-pass filters. Acceleration sensors measure the highest frequencies using piezoelectric, strain gage, or servo accelerometers. Position sensors include potentiometers, resolvers, optical encoders, and linear variable differential transformers (LVDT). The chapter concludes by discussing applications of robot sensors in industries like using contact sensors to detect welding seams or non-contact through-the-arc sensors to detect welding parameters.
Tactile sensors and their robotic applicationsAasheesh Tandon
This presentation discusses about artificial tactile sensors, it's comparison with human tactile senses. Further different types of tactile sensors are enlisted ,with a few given in more detail.
Robotic applications are also discussed and then finally future developments in this area is mentioned.
This document discusses several types of advanced sensors. It begins by distinguishing between analog and digital sensors, with analog sensors producing continuous outputs and digital sensors producing discrete outputs. It then examines several specific sensor types in more detail, including position sensors like potentiometers; temperature sensors like thermostats and thermocouples; light sensors such as photoresistors; and motion sensors including passive infrared and ultrasonic sensors. The document concludes by noting the wide variety of advanced sensors that can perform different functions.
This document discusses different types of smart sensors. It begins by defining a sensor as a device that detects environmental changes and responds with an output. It states that combining a sensor with interfacing hardware creates a smart sensor. It then lists and provides brief descriptions of 9 common types of smart sensors: temperature sensors, proximity sensors, pressure sensors, gas and smoke sensors, accelerometer sensors, level sensors, motion detection sensors, optical sensors, and gyroscope sensors.
Sensors are devices that convert physical parameters into electrical signals that can be measured. They work by transmitting light or infrared radiation onto an object, and a receiver detects the reflected light. The signal is then amplified and processed. There are different types of sensors for factory and process automation, including inductive, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic, and temperature, pressure, level, and flow sensors. Sensors play a key role in automation by enabling control systems across various industries like manufacturing, food processing, and more, making lives easier, safer, and more productive through increased automation.
Requirements of a sensor, Principles and Applications of the following types of sensors- Position sensors - Piezo Electric Sensor, LVDT, Resolvers, Optical Encoders, pneumatic Position Sensors, Range Sensors Triangulations Principles, Structured, Lighting Approach, Time of Flight, Range Finders, Laser Range Meters, Touch Sensors ,binary Sensors., Analog Sensors, Wrist Sensors, Compliance Sensors, Slip Sensors, Camera, Frame Grabber, Sensing and Digitizing Image Data- Signal Conversion, Image Storage, Lighting Techniques, Image Processing and Analysis-Data Reduction, Segmentation, Feature Extraction, Object Recognition, Other Algorithms, Applications- Inspection, Identification, Visual Serving and Navigation.
This Presentation provides some basics of Sensors Technology.........
It gives few ideas to learn about sensors which are as normally used as electrical & electronics applications.......
Warren Johnson invented the first modern sensor, an electric thermostat, in 1883. Samuel Bagno then invented the first motion sensor in the early 1950s for use in alarm systems, using ultrasonic frequencies and the Doppler effect. Sensors have since evolved for various uses such as temperature, light, humidity, vibration, gas, and motion detection in applications like vehicles, security systems, air traffic control, and more. Motion sensors in particular have military applications like land mines and helped track enemy movement in World War II.
A light sensor detects ambient light levels and can include photoresistors, photodiodes, or phototransistors. It works by measuring changes in electrical resistance, voltage, or current caused by exposure to light. Light sensors have a wide range of applications including in street lights, cameras, alarms, and automatic lighting controls.
This document provides an overview of a student project report on sensors in everyday life. It begins with an acknowledgment thanking the project guide. The table of contents lists various sensors that will be discussed including accelerometers, anemometers, blood pressure sensors, CO2 gas sensors, current sensors, ECG sensors, and others. Descriptions of some common sensors are then provided, explaining what they measure and their basic functioning, such as how accelerometers measure acceleration, anemometers measure wind speed, and blood pressure sensors use an occlusive cuff to measure blood pressure.
Sensors in Different Application Area Topics Covered: Occupancy and Motion Detectors; Position, Displacement, and Level; Velocity and Acceleration; Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensors; Pressure Sensors, Temperature Sensors
Emerging Trends in Sensor Application in Industrial Scenario.pptxBikashDas76792
The document discusses sensors and temperature sensors. It defines a sensor as a device that detects and responds to physical input from the environment and converts it into a readable signal. It then discusses different types of temperature sensors like thermocouples, thermistors, and RTDs that detect temperature changes by measuring properties like voltage, resistance, or current. Finally, it provides examples of infrared temperature sensors and optical pyrometers that can measure the temperature of moving or hot objects non-contactly and discusses common temperature sensor uses.
Different types of Sensors used in Mechatronics.pptsadanand50
An eddy current proximity sensor detects conductive objects using a coil that generates an oscillating magnetic field, inducing eddy currents in nearby objects. When a conductive object enters the field, it alters the coil's impedance, generating a signal indicating the object's presence and distance. These non-contact sensors can detect various materials and operate reliably in harsh environments.
This document discusses sensors used in IoT applications. It begins by defining sensors as input devices that convert physical quantities into electrical signals. Common sensor types are then described, including temperature, proximity, infrared, pressure, light, ultrasonic, gas, humidity, tilt, and flow sensors. The document classifies sensors as active or passive, and analog or digital. It provides examples of real-world sensor applications in aircraft flight control systems. Overall, the document provides a high-level overview of different sensor types and their uses in IoT and automated systems.
This document discusses different types of robotic sensors. It begins by differentiating between proximity sensors, which detect how close an object is, and tactile sensors, which detect properties like touch and force. It then lists five desirable features for robotic sensors: accuracy, precision, operating range, speed of response, and reliability. The document explains how ultrasonic sensors work using diagrams, emitting sound waves and measuring their return time to compute distances.
This document discusses different types of temperature sensors. It defines temperature sensors as devices that measure changes in temperature by converting the temperature input into an electrical output signal. The document describes two main categories of temperature sensors: contact sensors that must physically touch the object being measured, and non-contact sensors that can measure temperature without direct contact. Examples of different contact and non-contact temperature sensor technologies are provided, including thermocouples, thermistors, infrared sensors, and more.
This article provides an introduction to the fundamental of Sensors and Transducers. It illustrates the different classifications of sensors and transducers. Explains capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers in brief. Also shows the examples under these types of transducers.
This document discusses various sensors including smoke sensors, parking sensors, pedometers, pressure sensors, and accelerometers. It provides details on the types, working mechanisms, and applications of each sensor. Smoke sensors are discussed in depth including ionization, optical, and carbon monoxide types. Parking sensors use electromagnetic or ultrasonic sensors to alert drivers to obstacles. Pedometers count steps using mechanical or MEMS sensors. Pressure sensors include strain gauge, capacitive, and piezoelectric types and are used in industries like automotive and biomedical. Accelerometers measure acceleration using capacitive, piezoelectric, or piezoresistive mechanisms and have applications in devices, robots, and seismic monitoring.
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment.
The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other environmental phenomena.
The output is generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display at the sensor location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further processing.
Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive. Active sensors require an external power source to respond to environmental inputs and generate an output, such as sensors used in weather satellites. Passive sensors do not require external power and rely on environmental sources like light or heat, such as mercury thermometers. Sensors are used across many industries and applications, including in industrial equipment, healthcare devices like heart rate monitors, consumer electronics with light and proximity sensors, agriculture with soil and climate sensors, and security systems using cameras, door sensors, and biometrics.
1) Sensors are devices that detect physical quantities and convert them into signals that can be measured. They are needed for industrial monitoring, safety, and automation.
2) Common sensors include position, proximity, range, touch, and force sensors. Position sensors like LVDT and RVDT convert linear or angular displacement into electrical signals.
3) Sensors have characteristics like range, sensitivity, accuracy, and response time that determine their effectiveness. Understanding sensor types and properties is important for robotics applications.
The document discusses different types of sensors, their characteristics and applications. It describes common sensors such as temperature, current and level sensors. Temperature sensors include thermistors and thermocouples. Current sensors consist of Hall sensors and magnetostriction sensors. The document also introduces smart sensors which integrate additional features like self-calibration. Finally, it outlines industrial applications of various sensors in areas like power plants, electrical machines and robotics.
Sensors detect physical parameters and convert them into electrical signals. Sensors are made of silicon and can measure attributes like temperature, pressure, and speed. Smart sensors contain both sensors and microprocessors, allowing them to process data, communicate, and make decisions. Smart sensors are classified based on the sensor type, technology, components, and network connectivity. They have advantages like reliability, performance, and scalability but also disadvantages like complexity, cost, and needing external calibration.
1. Occupancy and motion sensors use technologies like ultrasonic, microwave, capacitive, visible light, and infrared to detect movement or occupancy.
2. Microwave sensors emit and receive reflected waves to detect movement, while ultrasonic sensors use echo location like bats.
3. Capacitive sensors detect changes in capacitance from nearby objects, and passive infrared sensors detect changes in infrared emissions.
The Ceres V 1280 is based upon the Dione 1280 OEM thermal imaging core with 1280×1024 pixels and 12 μm pixel pitch. The camera offers superior thermal imaging capabilities thanks to the state-of-the-art high-resolution microbolometer detector and on-board image processing. The Ceres V 1280 thermal imaging camera outputs full frame images at 60 Hz via either a CameraLink or GigE Vision interface – all GenICam compliant. The compact size, excellent image quality and GenICam compliant interfacing allow for easy integration in demanding industrial, scientific and security thermal imaging applications. The camera comes either in a no-lens configuration (camera only with M34x0.5 and M45x0.75 optical mount), or with four different HFOV (Horizontal Field-Of-View) options: 12, 16, 25, 48 or 71 degrees The high-resolution Ceres V 1280 thermal imaging camera find application in industrial machine vision, scientific research, medical and security systems where a GenICam compliant interface is a strong requirement.
Link here: https://applied-infrared.com.au/product/ceres-1280-thermal-imaging-camera/
This document provides a summary of 20 existing sensors and their uses. It discusses sensors such as temperature sensors, pressure sensors, touch sensors, image sensors, motion sensors, light sensors, humidity sensors, vibration sensors, proximity sensors, color sensors, gas/smoke sensors, alcohol sensors, tilt sensors, ultrasonic sensors, infrared sensors, flow sensors, leak sensors, radiation sensors, level sensors, and flame sensors. For each sensor, it provides a brief definition and examples of applications. The document was submitted by a student as part of a course assignment on microprocessors and assembly language.
1. Sensors are devices that detect physical parameters and convert them into signals that can be processed by systems. Common sensors measure temperature, pressure, velocity, rotation, flow, and other variables.
2. Sensors are needed in industry to monitor machinery and prevent failures, in the environment to detect hazards, and for safety and security applications like fire detection.
3. Common sensors used in robotics include position sensors, proximity sensors, range sensors, tactile sensors, and force sensors. Position sensors like LVDTs and RVDTs convert linear or angular displacement into electrical signals.
Sensors can be classified into different types based on their sensing elements and mechanisms. Some key sensor types discussed in the document include biosensors, chemosensors, conductometric sensors, electrochemical sensors, thermodynamic sensors, optical sensors, and dissolved oxygen sensors. Conductometric sensors measure conductivity changes when analytes interact with sensing materials. Electrochemical sensors react with gases to produce electrical signals proportional to concentration. Thermometric sensors detect temperature and convert it into electrical signals. Optical sensors convert light properties into electrical signals. Dissolved oxygen sensors are used to measure oxygen levels in water.
1. Sensors allow machines and robots to monitor their surroundings in various ways and for many applications.
2. The document discusses different types of sensors like position, proximity, range sensors and their uses in industry, environment, and safety.
3. It also explains the characteristics and working principles of important position sensors like LVDT and RVDT, which can convert linear or angular displacement into electrical signals.
Transducers are devices that convert one form of energy to another. Silicon can be used in smart sensors and transducers due to its piezoresistance and ability to detect various signals including light, force, temperature, and chemicals. Smart sensors integrate transduction elements with electronics, which provides advantages like smaller size, self-calibration, computation, communication, and multi-sensing capabilities.
Similar to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (20)
A Novel Method for Prevention of Bandwidth Distributed Denial of Service AttacksIJERD Editor
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks became a massive threat to the Internet. Traditional
Architecture of internet is vulnerable to the attacks like DDoS. Attacker primarily acquire his army of Zombies,
then that army will be instructed by the Attacker that when to start an attack and on whom the attack should be
done. In this paper, different techniques which are used to perform DDoS Attacks, Tools that were used to
perform Attacks and Countermeasures in order to detect the attackers and eliminate the Bandwidth Distributed
Denial of Service attacks (B-DDoS) are reviewed. DDoS Attacks were done by using various Flooding
techniques which are used in DDoS attack.
The main purpose of this paper is to design an architecture which can reduce the Bandwidth
Distributed Denial of service Attack and make the victim site or server available for the normal users by
eliminating the zombie machines. Our Primary focus of this paper is to dispute how normal machines are
turning into zombies (Bots), how attack is been initiated, DDoS attack procedure and how an organization can
save their server from being a DDoS victim. In order to present this we implemented a simulated environment
with Cisco switches, Routers, Firewall, some virtual machines and some Attack tools to display a real DDoS
attack. By using Time scheduling, Resource Limiting, System log, Access Control List and some Modular
policy Framework we stopped the attack and identified the Attacker (Bot) machines
Hearing loss is one of the most common human impairments. It is estimated that by year 2015 more
than 700 million people will suffer mild deafness. Most can be helped by hearing aid devices depending on the
severity of their hearing loss. This paper describes the implementation and characterization details of a dual
channel transmitter front end (TFE) for digital hearing aid (DHA) applications that use novel micro
electromechanical- systems (MEMS) audio transducers and ultra-low power-scalable analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs), which enable a very-low form factor, energy-efficient implementation for next-generation
DHA. The contribution of the design is the implementation of the dual channel MEMS microphones and powerscalable
ADC system.
Influence of tensile behaviour of slab on the structural Behaviour of shear c...IJERD Editor
-A composite beam is composed of a steel beam and a slab connected by means of shear connectors
like studs installed on the top flange of the steel beam to form a structure behaving monolithically. This study
analyzes the effects of the tensile behavior of the slab on the structural behavior of the shear connection like slip
stiffness and maximum shear force in composite beams subjected to hogging moment. The results show that the
shear studs located in the crack-concentration zones due to large hogging moments sustain significantly smaller
shear force and slip stiffness than the other zones. Moreover, the reduction of the slip stiffness in the shear
connection appears also to be closely related to the change in the tensile strain of rebar according to the increase
of the load. Further experimental and analytical studies shall be conducted considering variables such as the
reinforcement ratio and the arrangement of shear connectors to achieve efficient design of the shear connection
in composite beams subjected to hogging moment.
Gold prospecting using Remote Sensing ‘A case study of Sudan’IJERD Editor
Gold has been extracted from northeast Africa for more than 5000 years, and this may be the first
place where the metal was extracted. The Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) is an exposure of Precambrian
crystalline rocks on the flanks of the Red Sea. The crystalline rocks are mostly Neoproterozoic in age. ANS
includes the nations of Israel, Jordan. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Yemen, and Somalia.
Arabian Nubian Shield Consists of juvenile continental crest that formed between 900 550 Ma, when intra
oceanic arc welded together along ophiolite decorated arc. Primary Au mineralization probably developed in
association with the growth of intra oceanic arc and evolution of back arc. Multiple episodes of deformation
have obscured the primary metallogenic setting, but at least some of the deposits preserve evidence that they
originate as sea floor massive sulphide deposits.
The Red Sea Hills Region is a vast span of rugged, harsh and inhospitable sector of the Earth with
inimical moon-like terrain, nevertheless since ancient times it is famed to be an abode of gold and was a major
source of wealth for the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt. The Pharaohs old workings have been periodically
rediscovered through time. Recent endeavours by the Geological Research Authority of Sudan led to the
discovery of a score of occurrences with gold and massive sulphide mineralizations. In the nineties of the
previous century the Geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS) in cooperation with BRGM utilized
satellite data of Landsat TM using spectral ratio technique to map possible mineralized zones in the Red Sea
Hills of Sudan. The outcome of the study mapped a gossan type gold mineralization. Band ratio technique was
applied to Arbaat area and a signature of alteration zone was detected. The alteration zones are commonly
associated with mineralization. The alteration zones are commonly associated with mineralization. A filed check
confirmed the existence of stock work of gold bearing quartz in the alteration zone. Another type of gold
mineralization that was discovered using remote sensing is the gold associated with metachert in the Atmur
Desert.
Reducing Corrosion Rate by Welding DesignIJERD Editor
This document summarizes a study on reducing corrosion rates in steel through welding design. The researchers tested different welding groove designs (X, V, 1/2X, 1/2V) and preheating temperatures (400°C, 500°C, 600°C) on ferritic malleable iron samples. Testing found that X and V groove designs with 500°C and 600°C preheating had corrosion rates of 0.5-0.69% weight loss after 14 days, compared to 0.57-0.76% for 400°C preheating. Higher preheating reduced residual stresses which decreased corrosion. Residual stresses were 1.7 MPa for optimal X groove and 600°C
Router 1X3 – RTL Design and VerificationIJERD Editor
Routing is the process of moving a packet of data from source to destination and enables messages
to pass from one computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. A router is a networking device
that forwards data packets between computer networks. It is connected to two or more data lines from different
networks (as opposed to a network switch, which connects data lines from one single network). This paper,
mainly emphasizes upon the study of router device, it‟s top level architecture, and how various sub-modules of
router i.e. Register, FIFO, FSM and Synchronizer are synthesized, and simulated and finally connected to its top
module.
Active Power Exchange in Distributed Power-Flow Controller (DPFC) At Third Ha...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a component within the flexible ac-transmission system (FACTS) family, called
distributed power-flow controller (DPFC). The DPFC is derived from the unified power-flow controller (UPFC)
with an eliminated common dc link. The DPFC has the same control capabilities as the UPFC, which comprise
the adjustment of the line impedance, the transmission angle, and the bus voltage. The active power exchange
between the shunt and series converters, which is through the common dc link in the UPFC, is now through the
transmission lines at the third-harmonic frequency. DPFC multiple small-size single-phase converters which
reduces the cost of equipment, no voltage isolation between phases, increases redundancy and there by
reliability increases. The principle and analysis of the DPFC are presented in this paper and the corresponding
simulation results that are carried out on a scaled prototype are also shown.
Mitigation of Voltage Sag/Swell with Fuzzy Control Reduced Rating DVRIJERD Editor
Power quality has been an issue that is becoming increasingly pivotal in industrial electricity
consumers point of view in recent times. Modern industries employ Sensitive power electronic equipments,
control devices and non-linear loads as part of automated processes to increase energy efficiency and
productivity. Voltage disturbances are the most common power quality problem due to this the use of a large
numbers of sophisticated and sensitive electronic equipment in industrial systems is increased. This paper
discusses the design and simulation of dynamic voltage restorer for improvement of power quality and
reduce the harmonics distortion of sensitive loads. Power quality problem is occurring at non-standard
voltage, current and frequency. Electronic devices are very sensitive loads. In power system voltage sag,
swell, flicker and harmonics are some of the problem to the sensitive load. The compensation capability
of a DVR depends primarily on the maximum voltage injection ability and the amount of stored
energy available within the restorer. This device is connected in series with the distribution feeder at
medium voltage. A fuzzy logic control is used to produce the gate pulses for control circuit of DVR and the
circuit is simulated by using MATLAB/SIMULINK software.
Study on the Fused Deposition Modelling In Additive ManufacturingIJERD Editor
Additive manufacturing process, also popularly known as 3-D printing, is a process where a product
is created in a succession of layers. It is based on a novel materials incremental manufacturing philosophy.
Unlike conventional manufacturing processes where material is removed from a given work price to derive the
final shape of a product, 3-D printing develops the product from scratch thus obviating the necessity to cut away
materials. This prevents wastage of raw materials. Commonly used raw materials for the process are ABS
plastic, PLA and nylon. Recently the use of gold, bronze and wood has also been implemented. The complexity
factor of this process is 0% as in any object of any shape and size can be manufactured.
Spyware triggering system by particular string valueIJERD Editor
This computer programme can be used for good and bad purpose in hacking or in any general
purpose. We can say it is next step for hacking techniques such as keylogger and spyware. Once in this system if
user or hacker store particular string as a input after that software continually compare typing activity of user
with that stored string and if it is match then launch spyware programme.
A Blind Steganalysis on JPEG Gray Level Image Based on Statistical Features a...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a blind steganalysis technique to effectively attack the JPEG steganographic
schemes i.e. Jsteg, F5, Outguess and DWT Based. The proposed method exploits the correlations between
block-DCTcoefficients from intra-block and inter-block relation and the statistical moments of characteristic
functions of the test image is selected as features. The features are extracted from the BDCT JPEG 2-array.
Support Vector Machine with cross-validation is implemented for the classification.The proposed scheme gives
improved outcome in attacking.
Secure Image Transmission for Cloud Storage System Using Hybrid SchemeIJERD Editor
- Data over the cloud is transferred or transmitted between servers and users. Privacy of that
data is very important as it belongs to personal information. If data get hacked by the hacker, can be
used to defame a person’s social data. Sometimes delay are held during data transmission. i.e. Mobile
communication, bandwidth is low. Hence compression algorithms are proposed for fast and efficient
transmission, encryption is used for security purposes and blurring is used by providing additional
layers of security. These algorithms are hybridized for having a robust and efficient security and
transmission over cloud storage system.
Application of Buckley-Leverett Equation in Modeling the Radius of Invasion i...IJERD Editor
A thorough review of existing literature indicates that the Buckley-Leverett equation only analyzes
waterflood practices directly without any adjustments on real reservoir scenarios. By doing so, quite a number
of errors are introduced into these analyses. Also, for most waterflood scenarios, a radial investigation is more
appropriate than a simplified linear system. This study investigates the adoption of the Buckley-Leverett
equation to estimate the radius invasion of the displacing fluid during waterflooding. The model is also adopted
for a Microbial flood and a comparative analysis is conducted for both waterflooding and microbial flooding.
Results shown from the analysis doesn’t only records a success in determining the radial distance of the leading
edge of water during the flooding process, but also gives a clearer understanding of the applicability of
microbes to enhance oil production through in-situ production of bio-products like bio surfactans, biogenic
gases, bio acids etc.
Gesture Gaming on the World Wide Web Using an Ordinary Web CameraIJERD Editor
- Gesture gaming is a method by which users having a laptop/pc/x-box play games using natural or
bodily gestures. This paper presents a way of playing free flash games on the internet using an ordinary webcam
with the help of open source technologies. Emphasis in human activity recognition is given on the pose
estimation and the consistency in the pose of the player. These are estimated with the help of an ordinary web
camera having different resolutions from VGA to 20mps. Our work involved giving a 10 second documentary to
the user on how to play a particular game using gestures and what are the various kinds of gestures that can be
performed in front of the system. The initial inputs of the RGB values for the gesture component is obtained by
instructing the user to place his component in a red box in about 10 seconds after the short documentary before
the game is finished. Later the system opens the concerned game on the internet on popular flash game sites like
miniclip, games arcade, GameStop etc and loads the game clicking at various places and brings the state to a
place where the user is to perform only gestures to start playing the game. At any point of time the user can call
off the game by hitting the esc key and the program will release all of the controls and return to the desktop. It
was noted that the results obtained using an ordinary webcam matched that of the Kinect and the users could
relive the gaming experience of the free flash games on the net. Therefore effective in game advertising could
also be achieved thus resulting in a disruptive growth to the advertising firms.
Hardware Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Isolated Circuits And...IJERD Editor
-LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region[5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits.
Simulated Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Different Tank Circu...IJERD Editor
LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region [5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits. The supported simulation
is done through PSIM 6.0 software tool
Amateurs Radio operator, also known as HAM communicates with other HAMs through Radio
waves. Wireless communication in which Moon is used as natural satellite is called Moon-bounce or EME
(Earth -Moon-Earth) technique. Long distance communication (DXing) using Very High Frequency (VHF)
operated amateur HAM radio was difficult. Even with the modest setup having good transceiver, power
amplifier and high gain antenna with high directivity, VHF DXing is possible. Generally 2X11 YAGI antenna
along with rotor to set horizontal and vertical angle is used. Moon tracking software gives exact location,
visibility of Moon at both the stations and other vital data to acquire real time position of moon.
“MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to Extract Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chrom...IJERD Editor
Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR), also known as Microsatellites, have been extensively used as
molecular markers due to their abundance and high degree of polymorphism. The nucleotide sequences of
polymorphic forms of the same gene should be 99.9% identical. So, Microsatellites extraction from the Gene is
crucial. However, Microsatellites repeat count is compared, if they differ largely, he has some disorder. The Y
chromosome likely contains 50 to 60 genes that provide instructions for making proteins. Because only males
have the Y chromosome, the genes on this chromosome tend to be involved in male sex determination and
development. Several Microsatellite Extractors exist and they fail to extract microsatellites on large data sets of
giga bytes and tera bytes in size. The proposed tool “MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to extract
Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chromosome” can extract both Perfect as well as Imperfect Microsatellites from large
data sets of human genome „Y‟. The proposed system uses string matching with sliding window approach to
locate Microsatellites and extracts them.
Importance of Measurements in Smart GridIJERD Editor
- The need to get reliable supply, independence from fossil fuels, and capability to provide clean
energy at a fixed and lower cost, the existing power grid structure is transforming into Smart Grid. The
development of a smart energy distribution grid is a current goal of many nations. A Smart Grid should have
new capabilities such as self-healing, high reliability, energy management, and real-time pricing. This new era
of smart future grid will lead to major changes in existing technologies at generation, transmission and
distribution levels. The incorporation of renewable energy resources and distribution generators in the existing
grid will increase the complexity, optimization problems and instability of the system. This will lead to a
paradigm shift in the instrumentation and control requirements for Smart Grids for high quality, stable and
reliable electricity supply of power. The monitoring of the grid system state and stability relies on the
availability of reliable measurement of data. In this paper the measurement areas that highlight new
measurement challenges, development of the Smart Meters and the critical parameters of electric energy to be
monitored for improving the reliability of power systems has been discussed.
Study of Macro level Properties of SCC using GGBS and Lime stone powderIJERD Editor
The document summarizes a study on the use of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and limestone powder to replace cement in self-compacting concrete (SCC). Tests were conducted on SCC mixes with 0-50% replacement of cement with GGBS and 0-20% replacement with limestone powder. The results showed that replacing 30% of cement with GGBS and 15% with limestone powder produced SCC with the highest compressive strength of 46MPa, meeting fresh property requirements. The study concluded that this ternary blend of cement, GGBS and limestone powder can improve SCC properties while reducing costs.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Rainfall intensity duration frequency curve statistical analysis and modeling...bijceesjournal
Using data from 41 years in Patna’ India’ the study’s goal is to analyze the trends of how often it rains on a weekly, seasonal, and annual basis (1981−2020). First, utilizing the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve and the relationship by statistically analyzing rainfall’ the historical rainfall data set for Patna’ India’ during a 41 year period (1981−2020), was evaluated for its quality. Changes in the hydrologic cycle as a result of increased greenhouse gas emissions are expected to induce variations in the intensity, length, and frequency of precipitation events. One strategy to lessen vulnerability is to quantify probable changes and adapt to them. Techniques such as log-normal, normal, and Gumbel are used (EV-I). Distributions were created with durations of 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 h and return times of 2, 5, 10, 25, and 100 years. There were also mathematical correlations discovered between rainfall and recurrence interval.
Findings: Based on findings, the Gumbel approach produced the highest intensity values, whereas the other approaches produced values that were close to each other. The data indicates that 461.9 mm of rain fell during the monsoon season’s 301st week. However, it was found that the 29th week had the greatest average rainfall, 92.6 mm. With 952.6 mm on average, the monsoon season saw the highest rainfall. Calculations revealed that the yearly rainfall averaged 1171.1 mm. Using Weibull’s method, the study was subsequently expanded to examine rainfall distribution at different recurrence intervals of 2, 5, 10, and 25 years. Rainfall and recurrence interval mathematical correlations were also developed. Further regression analysis revealed that short wave irrigation, wind direction, wind speed, pressure, relative humidity, and temperature all had a substantial influence on rainfall.
Originality and value: The results of the rainfall IDF curves can provide useful information to policymakers in making appropriate decisions in managing and minimizing floods in the study area.
An improved modulation technique suitable for a three level flying capacitor ...IJECEIAES
This research paper introduces an innovative modulation technique for controlling a 3-level flying capacitor multilevel inverter (FCMLI), aiming to streamline the modulation process in contrast to conventional methods. The proposed
simplified modulation technique paves the way for more straightforward and
efficient control of multilevel inverters, enabling their widespread adoption and
integration into modern power electronic systems. Through the amalgamation of
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) with a high-frequency square wave
pulse, this controlling technique attains energy equilibrium across the coupling
capacitor. The modulation scheme incorporates a simplified switching pattern
and a decreased count of voltage references, thereby simplifying the control
algorithm.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
Discover the latest insights on Data Driven Maintenance with our comprehensive webinar presentation. Learn about traditional maintenance challenges, the right approach to utilizing data, and the benefits of adopting a Data Driven Maintenance strategy. Explore real-world examples, industry best practices, and innovative solutions like FMECA and the D3M model. This presentation, led by expert Jules Oudmans, is essential for asset owners looking to optimize their maintenance processes and leverage digital technologies for improved efficiency and performance. Download now to stay ahead in the evolving maintenance landscape.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development
1. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development
e-ISSN: 2278-067X, p-ISSN: 2278-800X, www.ijerd.com
Volume 10, Issue 4 (April 2014), PP.72-85
72
Types of Sensors and Their Applications
1
Snuti Kumari, 2
Garima Rathi, 3
Priyanka Attri,
4
Manee Kumar
1
“Department of electronics and communications” “Dronacharya College of Engineering”
“Mahamaya Technical University” “Department of mechanical engineering” “Dronacharya College of
Engineering” “Mahamaya Technical University”
2
“Department of computer science Engineering” “Institute of information technology and management”
“Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University”
3
“HMR institute of technology and management” “Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University”
4
“HMR institute of technology and management” “Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University”
Abstract:- As we all know that the sensors are the most important part of the embedded system and the robotics
world. By using different types of sensors we can minimize the logic circuits and also make the system more
efficient to get output by taking less input. Therefore, here is detailed view of different types of sensors and their
applications in the different fields.
Keywords:- sensors, temperature sensors, IR sensors, UV sensors, Touch sensors, Proximity sensors, advanced
sensor technology.
I. INTRODUCTION
Sensors are sophisticated devices that are frequently used to detect and respond to electrical or optical
signals. A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for example: temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed,
etc.) into a signal which can be measured electrically. Let‟s explain the example of temperature. The mercury in
the glass thermometer expands and contracts the liquid to convert the measured temperature which can be read
by a viewer on the calibrated glass tube.
A. CRETERIA TO CHOOSE THE SENSORS
There are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor. They are as given below:
1. Accuracy
2. Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity
3. Range - Measurement limit of sensor
4. Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes with time
5. Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor
6. Cost
7. Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same environment.
B. CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
The sensors are classified into the following criteria:
1. Primary Input quantity (Measured)
2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)
3. Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application
II. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PROPERTY:
· Temperature - Thermistors, thermocouples, RTD‟s, IC and many more.
· Image Sensors - These are based on the CMOS technology. They are used in consumer
Motion Detectors - These are based on the Infra-Red, Ultrasonic, and Microwave / radar technology. They are
used in videogames and simulations, light activation and security detection.
· Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT, electronic.
· Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal mass, etc.
· Level Sensors - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal displacement, etc.
· Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic.
2. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
73
· Biosensors - Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon resonance, Light addressable potentio-
metric.
· Image - Charge coupled devices, CMOS
· Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.
· Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.
· Others - Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force, viscosity.
Surface Plasmon resonance and Light addressable potentio-metric from the Bio-sensors group are the
new optical technology based sensors. CMOS Image sensors have low resolution as compared to charge coupled
devices. CMOS has the advantages of small size, cheap, less power consumption and hence are better substitutes
for Charge coupled devices. Accelerometers are independently grouped because of their vital role in future
applications like aircraft, automobiles, etc. and in fields of videogames, toys, etc. Magnetometers are those
sensors which measure magnetic flux intensity B (in units of Tesla or As/m2).
Classification based on Application:
· Industrial process control, measurement and automation
· Non-industrial use – Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer electronics, other type of
sensors.
Sensors can be classified based on power or energy supply requirement of the sensors:
· Active Sensor - Sensors that require power supply are called as Active Sensors. Example: LIDAR
(Light detection and ranging), photoconductive cell.
· Passive Sensor - Sensors that do not require power supply are called as Passive Sensors. Example:
Radiometers, film photography.
In the current and future applications, sensors can be classified into groups as follows:
· Accelerometers - These are based on the Micro Electro Mechanical sensor technology. They are used
for patient monitoring which includes pace makers and vehicle dynamic systems.
· Biosensors - These are based on the electrochemical technology. They are used for food testing, medical
care device, water testing, and biological warfare agent detection.
III. TYPES OF SENSORS
1. Temperature Sensors
This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts into a form that is
understandable by other device or person. The best illustration of a temperature sensor is mercury in glass
thermometer. The mercury in the glass expands and contracts depending on the alterations in temperature. The
outside temperature is the source element for the temperature measurement. The position of the mercury is
observed by the viewer to measure the temperature. There are two basic types of temperature sensors:
· Contact Sensors – This type of sensor requires direct physical contact with the object or media that is
being sensed. They supervise the temperature of solids, liquids and gases over a wide range of temperatures.
· Non contact Sensors – This type of sensor does not require any physical contact with the object or media
that is being sensed. They supervise non-reflective solids and liquids but are not useful for gases due to natural
transparency. These sensors use Plank‟s Law to measure temperature. This law deals with the heat radiated from
the source of heat to measure the temperature.
3. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
74
Working of different types of Temperature Sensors along with examples
(i) Thermocouple – They are made of two wires (each of different homogeneous alloy or metal)
which form a measuring junction by joining at one end. This measuring junction is open to the elements being
measured. The other end of the wire is terminated to a measuring device where a reference junction is formed.
The current flows through the circuit since the temperature of the two junctions are different. The resulted milli-
voltage is measured to determine the temperature at the junction. The diagram of thermocouple is shown below.
(ii) Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) – These are types of thermal resistors that are
fabricated to alter the electrical resistance with the alteration in temperature. They are very expensive than any
other temperature detection devices. The diagram of Resistance Temperature Detectors is shown below.
(iii) Thermistors – They are another kind of thermal resistor where a large change in resistance is
proportional to small change in temperature.
2. IR Sensor
This device emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense a particular phase in the environment.
Generally, thermal radiation is emitted by all the objects in the infrared spectrum. The infrared sensor detects
this type of radiation which is not visible to human eye.
Advantages
· Easy for interfacing
· Readily available in market
Disadvantages
· Disturbed by noises in the surrounding such as radiations, ambient light etc.
4. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
75
Working
The basic idea is to make use of IR LEDs to send the infrared waves to the object. Another IR diode of the same
type is to be used to detect the reflected wave from the object. The diagram is shown below.
When IR receiver is subjected to infrared light, a voltage difference is produced across the leads. Less
voltage which is produced can be hardly detected and hence operational amplifiers (Op-amps) are used to detect
the low voltages accurately.
Measuring the distance of the object from the receiver sensor: The electrical property of IR sensor components
can be used to measure the distance of an object. The fact when IR receiver is subjected to light, a potential
difference is produced across the leads.
3. UV Sensor
These sensors measure the intensity or power of the incident ultraviolet radiation. This form of
electromagnetic radiation has wavelengths longer than x-rays but is still shorter than visible radiation. An active
material known as polycrystalline diamond is being used for reliable ultraviolet sensing. UV sensors can
discover the exposure of environment to ultraviolet radiation.
Criteria to select a UV Sensor
· Wavelength ranges in nanometres (nm) that can be detected by the UV sensors.
· Operating temperature
· Accuracy
· Weight
· Power range
Working
The UV sensor accepts one type of energy signal and transmits different type of energy signals.
To observe and record these output signals they are directed to an electrical meter. To create graphs and reports,
the output signals are transmitted to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and then to a computer with software.
Examples include:
· UV phototubes are radiation-sensitive sensors supervise UV air treatments, UV water treatments, and solar
irradiance.
· Light sensors measure the intensity of incident light.
· UV spectrum sensors are charged coupled devices (CCD) utilized in scientific photography.
· Ultraviolet light detectors.
· Germicidal UV detectors.
· Photo stability sensors.
5. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
76
IV. TOUCH SENSOR
A touch sensor acts as a variable resistor as per the location where it is touched. The figure is as shown below.
A touch sensor is made of: Fully conductive substance such as copper Insulated spacing material such as foam
or plastic partially conductive material
Principle and Working
The partially conductive material opposes the flow of current. The main principle of the linear position
sensor is that the current flow is more opposed when the length of this material that must be travelled by the
current is more. As a result, the resistance of the material is varied by changing the position at which it makes
contact with the fully conductive material.
Generally, softwares are interfaced to the touch sensors. In such a case, a memory is being offered by
the software. They can memorize the „last touched position‟ when the sensor is deactivated. They can memorize
the „first touched position‟ once the sensor gets activated and understand all the values related to it. This act is
similar to how one moves the mouse and locates it at the other end of mouse pad in order to move the cursor to
the far side of the screen.
V. PROXIMITY SENSOR
A proximity sensor detects the presence of objects that are nearly placed without any point of contact.
Since there is no contact between the sensors and sensed object and lack of mechanical parts, these sensors have
long functional life and high reliability. The different types of proximity sensors are Inductive Proximity
6. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
77
sensors, Capacitive Proximity sensors, Ultrasonic proximity sensors, photoelectric sensors, Hall-effect sensors,
etc.
Working
A proximity sensor emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (such as infrared), and waits for the return signal or changes in the field. The object which is being
sensed is known as the proximity sensor's target.
Inductive Proximity sensors – They have an oscillator as input to change the loss resistance by the proximity of
an electrically conductive medium. These sensors are preferred for metal targets.
Capacitive Proximity sensors – They convert the electrostatic capacitance variation flanked by the detecting
electrode and the ground electrode. This occurs by approaching the nearby object with a variation in an
oscillation frequency. To detect the nearby object, the oscillation frequency is transformed into a direct current
voltage which is compared with a predetermined threshold value. These sensors are preferred for plastic targets.
The movement of ultrasonic waves differs due to shape and type of media. For example, ultrasonic waves move
straight in a uniform medium, and are reflected and transmitted back at the boundary between differing media.
A human body in air causes considerable reflection and can be easily detected.
The travelling of ultrasonic waves can be best explained by understanding the following:
1. Multi-reflection
Multi-reflection takes place when waves are reflected more than once between the sensor and the detection
object.
2. Limit zone
The minimum sensing distance and maximum sensing distance can be adjusted. This is called the limit zone.
3. Undetection zone
The undetected zone is the interval between the surface of the sensor head and the minimum detection
distance resulting from detection distance adjustment.
The Undetection zone is the area close to the sensor where detection is not possible due to the sensor
head configuration and reverberations. Detection may occur in the uncertainty zone due to multi-reflection
between the sensor and the object.
Principle:
Different definitions are approved to distinguish sensors and transducers. Sensors can be defined as an
element that senses in one form of energy to produce a variant in same or another form of energy. Transducer
converts the measured into the desired output using the transduction principle.
Based on the signals that are obtained and created, the principle can be categorized into following groups
namely, Electrical, Mechanical, Thermal, Chemical, Radiant, and Magnetic.
Let‟s take the example of an ultrasonic sensor.
An ultrasonic sensor is used to detect the presence of an object. It achieves this by emitting ultrasonic
waves from the device head and then receiving the reflected ultrasonic signal from the concerned object. This
helps in detecting the position, presence and movement of objects.
7. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
78
Since ultrasonic sensors rely on sound rather than light for detection, it is widely used to measure water-levels,
medical scanning procedures and in the automobile industry. Ultrasonic waves can detect transparent objects
such as transparent films, glass bottles, plastic bottles, and plate glass, using its Reflective Sensors.
6. Advanced Sensor Technology
Sensor technology is used in wide range in the field of Manufacturing. The advanced technologies are as
follows:
1. Bar-code Identification - The products sold in the markets has a Universal Product Code (UPC) which is
a 12 digit code. Five of the numbers signify the manufacturer and other five signify the product. The first six
digits are represented by code as light and dark bars. The first digit signifies the type of number system and the
second digit which is parity signifies the accuracy of the reading. The remaining six digits are represented by
code as dark and light bars reversing the order of the first six digits. Bar code is shown in the figure given below.
The bar code reader can manage different bar code standards even without having the knowledge of the
standard code. The disadvantage with bar coding is that the bar scanner is unable to read if the bar code is
concealed with grease or dirt.
2. Transponders - In the automobile section, Radio frequency device is used in many cases. The
transponders are hidden inside the plastic head of the key which is not visible to anyone. The key is inserted in
the ignition lock cylinder. As you turn the key, the computer transmits a radio signal to the transponder. The
computer will not let the engine to ignite until the transponder responds to the signal. These transponders are
energized by the radio signals. The figure of a transponder is as shown below:
3. Electromagnetic Identification of Manufactured Components - This is similar to the bar code
technology where the data can be coded on magnetic stripe. With magnetic striping, the data can be read even if
the code is concealed with grease or dirt.
4. Surface Acoustic Waves - This process is similar to the RF identification. Here, the part identification gets
triggered by the radar type signals and is transmitted over long distances as compared to the RF systems.
5. Optical Character Recognition - This is a type of automatic identification technique which uses
alphanumeric characters as the source of information. In United States, Optical character recognition is used in
mail processing Centre‟s. They are also used in vision systems and voice recognition systems.
Applications of these sensors:
1. Temperature sensors:
[1] Thermistors
8. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
79
Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistors) are available in two types:
NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) resistance decreases with rising temperature
PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) resistance increases with rising temperature
In both types, the electrical resistance changes with temperature according to a defined curve.
Temp (°C) Resistance (ohm) Temp (°C) Resistance (ohm)
NTC Pt1000 NTC Pt1000
-10 27665 960.9 80 629 1308.9
0 16325 1000.0 90 458.8 1347.0
10 9950 1039.0 100 340.0 1385.0
20 6245 1077.9 110 255.6 1422.9
30 4029 1116.7 120 194.7 1460.6
40 2663 1155.4 130 150.4 1498.2
50 1802 1194.0 140 117.4 1535.8
60 1244 1232.4 150 92.65 1573.1
70 876 1270.7
[2] NTC
The NTCs used by McLaren Electronics are polycrystalline metal oxide ceramic. These precision NTC
elements have a very tight measuring tolerance in a small package, which results in a fast and accurate response.
Near room temperature, these devices offer the greatest sensitivity to temperature differences – an
order of magnitude greater than PTCs or thermocouples. The nominal resistance of the NTC thermistors used in
McLaren Electronics sensors is 5kohm at 25°C. However, the resistance decreases very rapidly with
temperature, making them less suitable for accurate high temperature measurements. Furthermore, the low
resistance at higher temperatures makes the sensors sensitive to the resistance of the harness and connector
contacts.
Because of their high output, NTCs can interface with simple electronic interface circuits as used in
mass market control systems. Our systems have high sensitivity inputs which do not need the high output of an
NTC sensor. However, our systems can interface to NTC sensors, if required.
The Temperature-Resistance function for NTC thermistors is defined as follows:
Temperature (K) = 1 / (A + B*ln[R] + C*[lnR] 3)
R = Resistance of sensor (ohm)
A = 1.28735 x 10-3
B = 0.2357532 x 10-3
C = 94.95448 x 10-9
9. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
80
[3] PTC
Platinum (Pt.) thermistors are the most stable temperature sensors in common use today. They are
constructed from a platinum film deposited onto a ceramic substrate. Platinum has been used to measure
temperature for over 100 years. It offers high reliability, long term stability, and rapid response. It is also
insensitive to vibration and thermal shock.
The resistance varies with temperature in a precise fashion. Between 0 and 600°C, this response can be
expressed as an exact mathematical function. Pt. elements are normally supplied with a base resistance of either
100 ohm (Pt100) or 1000 ohm (Pt1000), measured at 0°C.
The Resistance-Temperature transfer function for Pt1000 sensors is defined as follows:
Sensor Resistance (ohm) = 1000 * (1 + ((3.90802x10-3 * T) – (0.5802x10-6 * T2)))
T = Temperature (°C)
[4] Application of NTCs and PTCs
To measure resistance, an electric current has to flow through the element. This generates heat,
resulting in errors. To minimize such errors, the measuring current needs to be kept low (typically less than
1mA). The wires joining the sensing element to the measuring device have their own resistance, which may vary
in unpredictable ways, and so cause further errors. By selecting the sensor resistance to be as large as possible,
both self-heating and lead wire resistance errors can be minimized.
Pt100s exhibit such a small resistance change with temperature that they tend to be overly sensitive to
cable length and connector contact resistance changes. McLaren Electronics offers temperature sensors of all
three types, i.e. NTC, Pt100 and Pt1000. We recommend the use of Pt1000 devices for highest accuracy and
stability. All of our ECUs support Pt1000s as standard, but can be modified to support NTCs and Pt100s.
[5] Sensor Design
In automotive applications, the temperature of a gas (typically air) or a liquid (typically oil, water, fuel,
etc.) needs to be measured. Gases and liquids have very different thermal characteristics, so each medium
requires a different sensor design in order to make accurate temperature measurements.
Heat conducted into the sensor from the surrounding medium alters the temperature of the sensing tip.
Because gases are poor heat conductors and have a very low thermal mass, air temperature sensors must also
have a very low thermal mass. This minimizes errors in measurement and allows a rapid response to changes in
air temperature.
McLaren Electronics air temperature sensors achieve this by exposing the sensor element tip directly to
the air flow, without compromising ruggedness or reliability. Both screw-in and flange mount body styles are
available. Sensors with a flange mount body can be aligned in the air stream to exploit the planar symmetry of
the Pt. elements. This is most important for low velocity air flows, for example if the sensor is located at the end
of a manifold pipe.
With screw-in devices, the point at which the screw thread will tighten cannot be defined exactly. Any
error due to misalignment of the element in the air flow is minimized by careful attention to the design of the
sensor housing.
The fluids used in automotive applications are often aggressive and turbulent. The sensing element
must be isolated from the medium, so the sensor element is encapsulated at the tip of a thermally conductive
housing. This tip is made as small as possible to ensure minimal thermal mass – reducing error and response
time. This package offers a very rugged and accurate method of measuring fluid temperature.
10. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
81
[6] Thermocouple
A thermocouple consists of a pair of metals, with different thermo potentials, which are welded
together to form a junction. This junction can be very small, so a thermocouple is easily manufactured into a
small package. When the junction is heated, a voltage is generated which increases with increasing temperature.
Thermocouples are usually used to measure very high temperatures, such as exhaust gas, but may also be used
for lower temperatures. MESL offer both K-type (Chromel/Alumel) and J-type (Iron/Constantan) thermocouples.
The output voltages from these two types of thermocouple are shown below.
Temperature (°C) Output (mV)
J-Type K-Type
0 0 0
100 4.095 5.629
200 8.137 10.779
300 12.207 16.327
400 16.395 21.848
500 20.640 27.393
600 24.902 33.102
700 29.128 39.132
800 33.270 45.494
900 37.325 51.877
1000 41.269
1100 45.108
1200 48.828
For optimum performance the Chromel/Alumel thermocouple wires should be terminated to Alumel
and Chromel contacts within a connector. Thermocouple compensating cable must be used in the harness to
connect to the interface electronics. If copper or copper alloy contacts are used in intermediate connectors,
errors may be introduced which will depend on the temperature difference across the connector pair. These
errors will be negligible if the connector is kept isothermal.
[7] Interface Electronics
The junction is the point of temperature measurement. The other end of each sensor wire needs to be
connected to specialized electronics for reference cold junction compensation. Because the output voltage
changes by just a few microvolts per degree, well designed and well filtered electronics are required,
particularly if used close to an ignition system.
[8] Sensor Design
McLaren Electronics thermocouple sensors are mainly for the measurement of high temperature (up to
approx. 1250°C). The element is surrounded by a stainless steel tube. The diameter of the steel tube has been
selected as a compromise between mechanical robustness (particularly important when measuring exhaust gas
11. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
82
temperature) and short response time. The steel tube is electrically isolated from the thermocouple as required
by most cold junction compensation circuits.
[9] Infra-Red
Infra-red sensors measure temperature by detecting the heat radiated from a target which may be some
distance away. Such a non-contact measurement can be used in applications where direct contact with the
medium is difficult, e.g. when measuring the temperature of rotating parts such as a tyre or a brake disc.
[10] Principles of Operation
The Infra-red sensor is a thermoelectric device which converts radiated heat energy into an electrical
potential. The output is non-linear (although it is continuous and repeatable).
0-5V Output: Over the specified target temperature, the sensor gives an output in the 0-5V range.
MES Infra-red sensors obtain all their power from the energy radiated from the target so, in order to
minimize errors, the leakage current drawn by the attached measuring device must not exceed 10nA.
[11] Emissivity
Different materials have a different emissivity, i.e. they radiate different amounts of energy even when
held at the same temperature. Emissivity values are in the range 0 to 1. A perfectly reflecting surface has an
emissivity of 0. Such a surface acts like a mirror in that it reflects an image of its surrounds rather than emitting
its own radiation.
A perfect black body has an emissivity of 1. This kind of surface does not reflect at all, it emits energy
in a characteristic way which depends entirely on its temperature.
All real objects have a lower emissivity than an ideal black body and therefore radiate less energy.
Shiny metal surfaces have a low emissivity, in the region of 0.05 to 0.2, whilst non-metals, organic materials
and coated metals typically have high emissivity, in the range of 0.8 to 0.95. McLaren Electronics offers Infra-
red sensors suitable for the high emissivity range of 0.8 to 0.98.
Emissivity is difficult to measure accurately and it can change with the temperature of the target
surface. This affects the relationship between the temperature of the surface and the amount of energy it radiates.
Unless the sensor reading is interpreted to take the emissivity into account, this appears as a measurement error.
The sensors are sensitive to wavelengths which are much longer than those of visible light, so the color of the
target has little effect.
Please contact McLaren Electronics for assistance in determining the emissivity of your target medium.
12. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
83
[12] Failure Modes
The sensor reading will change if the sensitive face becomes dirty or scratched, and care should be
taken to clean the sensors with a suitable, non-aggressive substance. An air purge system can be supplied which
may be used to force air through the linearized output sensor to prevent the accumulation of debris in dirty
environments. For both types of IR temperature sensor the narrow field of view also allows the sensor to be
positioned some distance from the target.
Failure of the sensor may be induced by over temperature of either the sensor or the target, or by static
discharge (if not properly grounded). The mounting arrangement should minimize vibration and prevent the
impact of debris on the sensor.
If an Infra-red sensor is pointed at a very high temperature target, the internal circuits may be
overloaded, causing permanent damage. Please contact McLaren Electronics if you intend to use an Infra-red
sensor in a situation where the target temperature may exceed the temperature stated in the Product Summary.
[13] Applications
Due to its small size and ruggedness, this sensor is ideal for tyre and brake disk temperature measurement.
2. IR sensors
Common applications using InfraTec Pyroelectric infrared detectors include:
• NDIR gas analysis
• IR flame detection
• A variety of analytical instruments for detection of radiation from deep UV to FIR (THz)
• Single and Multi-channel pyrometers
There are also a growing number of diverse applications (some surprising) that use InfraTec thermal
detectors. Please let us know if your application might benefit from our highly stable, high performance, and
highest quality pyroelectric infrared detectors.
GAS DETECTORS / GAS LEAK DETECTION – By mounting a NBP (Narrow Band Pass) filter in
front of our infrared detectors; our device will produce a signal when a pulsed or “chopped” source is used to
illuminate it. The absorption region of CO2 gas is 4.26µm so placing a NBP filter at this spectral region in front
of our device allows it to see only that region. When CO2 gas leaks into the detector‟s Field of View the user
would see a drop in the device signal when the gas absorbs light energy. In some cases a second “Reference”
detector with a 3.95µm filter is used so that the comparison between the two channels gives further evidence of
a leak.
FLAME DETECTION – Hydrocarbon flames emit radiation between 4-4.6µm and the natural 10 Hertz
flickering of any flame is a natural source for our detectors mounted with an “HC” filter. Many clients use this
solution to protect lives at chemical and petroleum plants as well as general building safety.
ALCOHOL TESTING – Another application in the gas detection market is the testing for an illegal level of
alcohol in the breath of a driver. Very accurate readings can be obtained as legal evidence for DWI cases. This
concept is being taken a step further with the discovery that certain illnesses cause gases to form in the lungs
that are not normal, specifically in the case of cancer. By being able to detect certain gases, a quick and
inexpensive method of diagnosis may be possible.
ANESTHESIOLOGY TESTING – Another gas detection application is the use of our detectors to test for the
correct level and mixture of gases used in hospital operating rooms for anesthesiology. Too much, or too little of
one component could be fatal.
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION – A number of companies are using our detectors for high-temperature
down-hole operations as well as topside. Production testing for gas levels below and on the surface is important
to determine if drilling operations are proceeding as planned.
PLANT HEALTH – Imagine having a device that can test the level of CO2 absorption to analyze the health of
plants and check the effect of global warming…it is being done today.
RAIL SAFETY – Testing is underway for a device that will “look” at rail cars to test brake and wheel bearing
temperatures on the move. This is critical, especially for high speed rail in Europe to detect potential failures
before they happen.
SPACE OPERATIONS – InfraTec is qualified by the European Space Agency for use on platforms for Earth
limb detection for satellite orientation and will potentially see applications in LIDAR applications in the future.
UNDERGROUND SOLUTION – The detection of Methane and other gases in mining operations is very
critical to the safety of operations around the world. Many customers use our highly reliable devices to protect
the lives of those that work long hours beneath our feet.
13. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
84
WATER and STEEL ANALYSIS – Clients use our devices to test gases emitted from water as it is boiled
down to test for and identify impurities. In the production of steel, the same process can be used to test for
correct mixture of elements by super-heating steel pellet samples and observing the level of known gases for
quality and content. This gives controllers an opportunity to make corrections before molding or processing the
molten metal.
3. UV sensors:
The total photon flux of UV radiation from sunlight is close to 8.5 percent of the PPF in full sunlight.
The photosynthetic photon flux at noon in full sunlight is about 2000 μmol m-2
s-1
, thus the photon flux of UV
radiation is about 170 μmol m-2
s-1
.
The SU ultraviolet sensor comes with a standard length of 5 meters of cable. The sensor is weather
resistant. The ultraviolet meter comes in two versions, the MU-100 with a built-in sensor and the MU-200 with
a remote sensor attached to the meter with 2 meters of cable.
4. TOUCH SENSORS:
• Gaming controllers
• Home entertainment
• Home appliances
• Cellular handsets
• Portable media devices.
5. Proximity sensors:
Parktronic, car bumpers that sense distance to nearby cars for parking
Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety
Vibration measurements of rotating shafts in machinery.
Top dead Centre (TDC)/camshaft sensor in reciprocating engines.
Sheet breaks sensing in paper machine.
Anti-aircraft warfare
Roller coasters
Conveyor systems
Mobile devices
Touch screens that come in close proximity to the face
Attenuating radio power in close proximity to the body, in order to reduce radiation exposure.
VI. CONCLUSION
By knowing these types of sensors and their application we can be able to use them in a much specified
manner. And also we can them in the various fields according to their principles and applications. The flexibility,
fault tolerance, high sensing fidelity, low-cost and rapid deployment characteristics of sensor networks create
many new and exciting application areas for remote sensing. In the future, this wide range of application areas
will make sensor networks an integral part of our lives. However, realization of sensor networks needs to satisfy
the constraints introduced by factors such as fault tolerance, scalability, cost, hardware, topology change,
environment and power consumption. Since these constraints are highly stringent and specific for sensor
14. Types of Sensors And Their Applications
85
networks, new wireless ad hoc networking techniques are required. we encourage more insight into the
problems and more development in solutions to the open research issues as described in this paper.
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