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Political science is the academic study of politics and political systems. It began in ancient Greece and the first political science department was established at Columbia University in 1880. The field has several subfields including comparative politics, American politics, and international relations. Political science research can be normative, focusing on ethical issues, or empirical, relying on observable data. Researchers use various methods like case studies, surveys, and experiments to study political phenomena scientifically. The goal is to form hypotheses, identify variables, clarify measurement, and develop theories to gain a better understanding of politics.
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This document provides an overview of the first unit of a sociology course. It includes:
- An introduction to examining social life, including defining sociology and differentiating it from other social sciences.
- An outline of the development of sociology from the 17th-19th centuries in Europe in response to industrialization and other social changes. Key early theorists who contributed to the field are identified.
- An introduction to the three major theoretical perspectives in sociology - functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism - and how they differ in their levels of analysis.
- An overview of how sociological research is conducted scientifically, using methods like surveys, observation, and experiments while following ethical standards
Unit 1: Foundations and Methods
This document provides an overview of the first unit in a sociology course. It includes information about the first day of class procedures and an outline of topics to be covered in Unit 1. The unit will focus on examining social life, the development of sociology, modern sociological perspectives, and conducting sociological research. Students will learn about the origins of sociology, the three major theoretical perspectives (functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism), and how sociological research follows the scientific method and ethical guidelines.
Chapter 2 Thinking About and Researching the Social World .docx
Chapter 2
Thinking About and Researching the Social World
Classical Sociological Theory
• What is a theory?
• Theory: “A set of interrelated ideas that have a wide range of
application, deal with centrally important issues, and have stood the
test of time” (Ritzer, 2016).
▫ Theories condense concepts in order to organize the social world
▫ Sociologists use theories in order to identify and frame ideas
Influences on the Emergence of Sociological Theory
• The Industrial Revolution
• Political revolutions (French and American revolutions)
• The rise of socialism
• The civil/women’s rights movements
• The growth of science, the replacement of faith by science
Early Theorists
• Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
▫ French philosopher
Originally termed his studies “social physics” he eventually coined the term
“sociology” to distinguish his work from others.
He believed sociology could use science to
understand, predict, and control human behavior for
the welfare of humanity.
The “Religion of Humanity”
Tenets: altruism, order, progress, introduction,
admission, destination, marriage, retirement, separation,
incorporation
Early Theorists
• Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)
▫ Born and Educated in England
Credited with bringing sociology to England
Argued that sociologists must focus on all aspects of society
Including women
First to look at issues such as marriage, children, domestic and
religious life as well as issues of race
Argued that sociologists must do more than just observe, but
should also act in ways that benefit society
Was active in the women's rights and emancipation movements
Wrote Society in America after extensive travels in the 1830’s
Early Theorists
• Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)
▫ Primarily interested in the root cause of social change, specifically evolution in
the physical, intellectual, and social domains.
▫ Was a polymath
Philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, and political theorist
▫ Coined the term “survival of the fittest”
Believed privileged members of society earned their status and
thus a higher quality of life
Government should not interfere with improving life chances
of individuals – against the natural order
The Big Three
• Karl Marx (1818-1883)
▫ German – born to the middle class
▫ Macro-theorist who focused on the structure of capitalist society
▫ Defined capitalism as an economic system based on the
bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production)
exploiting the proletariat (the workers).
Wrote in conjunction with Fredric Engles
The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital
The Big Three
• Karl Marx (1818-1883)
• Concepts from Marx
▫ Capitalism as a system based on exploitation
▫ Workers also experience alienation on the job
▫ False consciousness – an erroneous set of beliefs
▫ Class consciousness – a set of beliefs about an individual’s
soci.
Amtechapter1 150714145740-lva1-app6891
This document provides an overview of sociology as a field of study. It defines sociology as the systematic study of human society and social behavior, from large institutions to small groups. It discusses key concepts like social behavior, society, and the sociological perspective. It also outlines some of the main topics studied in sociology like socialization, culture, groups, inequality, and social institutions. The document emphasizes the importance of developing a sociological imagination to understand how individual experiences are shaped by broader social and historical forces.
Master Teacher
This document provides an overview of sociology as a field of study. It defines sociology as the systematic study of human society and social behavior, from large institutions to small groups. It discusses key concepts like social behavior, society, and the sociological perspective. It also summarizes some of the main topics covered in sociology like socialization, culture, groups, inequality, and social institutions. The document emphasizes that sociologists study people and society objectively using methods like participant observation, surveys, and the scientific method to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
Sociologyunit1powerpoint 140222062818-phpapp02
This document outlines the key concepts and lessons for Unit 1 of a sociology course. The unit will examine the foundations and origins of sociology, the three major theoretical perspectives in sociology, and how sociological research is conducted. Students will learn about the development of sociology as an academic discipline in response to social changes in Europe. They will also explore the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives and how sociologists use various methods like surveys, experiments, and observation to study social phenomena scientifically.
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The document discusses the social constructionist theory of deviance and crime known as labelling theory. It covers several key areas:
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Ch01 Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry
Maxfield, Michael G. & Babbie, Earl R. (2011). Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology, 6th Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
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14. Climate Change: Climate politics as paradox
This lecture examines another theory about the persistence of controversies in climate politics, despite growing scientific research. We develop a theory, evaluate it, and compare it to other ways of picturing the politics of climate change.
American Denial
This document summarizes research on implicit or unconscious bias and racism. It discusses early studies from the 1940s that found evidence of internalized racism, even in black children. Modern tests like the Implicit Association Test continue to show widespread implicit biases across races. Studies have found that identical resumes or patients receive different treatment based solely on race. The conclusion calls for openly discussing implicit bias to address institutional racism without apportioning blame, and to move past denial and become aware of destructive biases that affect society.
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The document provides instructions for a lesson on social studies. It begins with having students prepare their materials and discuss homework questions. It then defines social studies and explains how different social sciences can help make decisions as a television program director. Students assume roles and get advice from social scientist experts on potential television show topics. They reflect on cultural experiences and the reliability of sources. The lesson emphasizes how social studies integrates various disciplines to promote civic competence.
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This document outlines key concepts and approaches in naturalistic, qualitative, and ethnographic research. It discusses the foundations and stages of such research, including planning, data collection methods like observation and interviews, analysis involving inductive theory generation, and addressing issues like reflexivity and negotiating entry into research sites. Challenges like reactivity and representing multiple realities are also covered.
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- 1. Grigsby 2 Political Science and Scientific Methods in Studying Politics
- 2. Political Science An academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior.
- 3. Historical Developments • Beginnings traced to Ancient Greece • Socrates • Plato • Aristotle • Academic Field in U.S. • Columbia University 1880 • First political science department • American Political Science Association • Formed in 1903
- 4. Subfields • Comparative Politics • American Politics • International Relations • Public Policy • Political Research Methods • Political theory • Specialized Groups
- 5. Focus of Research • Normative issues • Issues involving value judgments and ethics • Empirical investigations • Observable and factual • Both Normative and Empirical
- 6. Analytical Approaches • Traditionalism • Behavioralism • Postbehavioralism
- 7. Traditionalism The analysis of the formal, legal, and official side of political life. • Try to understand politics by examining • Laws • Governmental offices • Constitutions • Other official offices associated with politics
- 8. Behavioralism The empirical analysis of the actual behavior of politically involved individuals and groups • Developed after WWII Charles Merriam 1874-1953 • Based on the works of Charles Merriam in the 1920s • Stresses the importance of empirical analysis • Collection of data based on observation • What is, rather than what should be
- 9. Postbehavioralism Political Science should be relevant, as well as empirically reliable David Easton • An alternative to both traditionalism and behavioralism (1969) • Information produced by political science has ethical implications.
- 10. Methodology • Scientific Method • The collection of data • Analysis of data • Testing of assertions • Science’s explanations are necessarily incomplete and tentative • Always subject to falsification
- 11. Steps Involved • Formulate an hypothesis • Operationalize concepts • Identify independent and dependent variables • Clarify measurement criteria • Distinguish between causation and correlation • Develop scientific theories
- 12. Formulating the Hypothesis A statement proposing a specific relationship between phenomena. • “Is voting in U.S. elections related to age?” • “U.S. citizens 18-24 years of age will vote in lower numbers than will U.S. citizens 45-55 years of age.”
- 13. Operationalize Concepts Concepts must be defined precisely to allow for empirical testing. • “Young people will vote less than older people in the U.S.” • “U.S. citizens 18-24 years of age will vote in lower numbers than will U.S. citizens 45-55 years of age.”
- 14. Identify Variables The phenomena linked together in a hypothesis. • Independent variables • Those that affect something • Example: Age • Dependent variables • Those that are being affected • Example: Voting
- 15. Clarifying Measurement Criteria Specifying what is taken as an indicator of the variable. • An indicator is evidence • How would we obtain evidence regarding our variable of voting?
- 16. Causation and Correlation • Causation: • One variable absolutely causing or creating the other. • Being age 20 absolutely determines whether someone will vote. • Correlation: • Changes in one variable appear when there are changes in another variable. • Lower voting appears with younger age groups.
- 17. Scientific Theories • Seek to offer explanations about why and how correlations occur. • Seek to predict. • Having found a relationship between age and voting, the political scientist might theorize: • Relationship is related to different mobility patterns among groups. • Most interesting aspect of science.
- 18. Francis Bacon - 1600s • Science can free us from various “idols” (errors, misconceptions, and distorted views). • Idols of marketplace • Idols of the tribe • Idols of the den • Idols of the theater
- 19. Idols of the Marketplace • Errors based on misunderstanding and faulty communication. • Errors related to our inexact use of language.
- 20. Idols of the Tribe • Errors related to the flaws of human nature • Errors caused by the human tendency to be: • Quick to judge • Superficial in our assessments
- 21. Idols of the Den • Errors caused by our inability to see beyond our own particular surroundings • Errors related to our near-sightedness and tendency to view our way of life as the standard for judging all others.
- 22. Idols of the Theater • Errors based on our beliefs in dogmatic teachings. • Errors caused by believing in systems of thought characterized by inflexibility closed off to questioning and critical analysis.
- 23. Research Strategies • Case Studies • Survey Research • Experiments and Quasi-Experiments • Indirect Quantitative Analysis
- 24. Case Studies An investigation of a specific phenomenon or entity. • Strength: • Allows for in-depth study • Weakness: • Information may not apply to other cases
- 25. Survey Research Questionnaires and/or interviews to gather data. • Strengths: • Large amounts of information can be gathered and assessed • Information more general than in case studies • Weaknesses: • Wording, sampling, and other problems • Lacks up-close, in-depth details of a case study
- 26. Experiments Investigation of a hypothesis by using a test group and a control group. • Strength: • Experimental conditions allow researchers to carefully test hypotheses. • Weaknesses: • Participants may alter behavior • Many questions cannot be tested by experiments
- 27. Quasi-Experiments • Field experiments • Like experiments, but unable to have true control group
- 28. Indirect Quantitative Analysis The analysis of data already compiled by others • Strength: • Researcher builds on findings of others • Weakness: • Often difficult to compare findings for different purposes.
- 29. Limitations of Science • Human bias • Human behavior is often unique • How do we know findings are correct? • Do we ignore important questions? • Science in conflict with ethics?
- 30. One Nation, Underprivileged Rank 2: Below the Line
- 32. War on Poverty “It will not be a short or easy struggle, no single weapon or strategy will suffice, but we shall not rest until that war is won. The richest nation on earth can afford to win it. We cannot afford to lose it.” Lyndon B. Johnson
- 33. Poverty Defined A lack of those necessities that “the custom of the country renders it indecent for creditable people, even of the lowest order, to be without.” Adam Smith
- 34. U.S. Poverty • Age group most at risk is children • U.S. level of poverty is one of the highest in the industrialized world
- 35. “It is poverty to decide that a child must die so that you may live as you wish.” ~ Mother Teresa of Calcutta