The document discusses genome structure and genomics. It defines key terms like genome, repetitive DNA, and defines the major classes of repetitive DNA, which constitute around 45% of the human genome. It discusses how DNA denaturation and renaturation kinetics can be used to determine genome complexity and GC content. Cot analysis allows characterization of sequence complexity based on repetitiveness. Eukaryotic genomes have lower gene density and finding genes is more challenging compared to prokaryotes due to introns and other factors.
SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphic), SNP mapping, SNP profile, SNP types, SNP analysis by gel electropherosis and by mass spectrometry, SNP effects, single strand conformation polymorphism, SNP advantages and disadvantages and application of SNP profile in drug choice
Gene cloning involves copying a gene and inserting it into a self-replicating vector to produce multiple copies of the gene. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique used to amplify specific genes. Both gene cloning and PCR are important for obtaining pure samples of genes and amplifying them for various applications like sequencing, expression of proteins, and genetic engineering.
The document discusses genome organization in eukaryotes. It describes how DNA is highly condensed and packaged within the nucleus through different levels of organization, from nucleosomes to 30nm fibers and higher-order structures. DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further condense into 30nm fibers. These fibers compact to form loops, domains, and chromosome territories within the nucleus. The precise structures at higher levels of organization are still being elucidated. Precise packaging is necessary to condense the large eukaryotic genome while allowing access for processes like transcription and replication.
This document discusses RFLP and VNTR analysis techniques. RFLP detects differences in DNA sequences by analyzing fragment length variations after restriction enzyme digestion. VNTRs are locations with variable numbers of short repeated sequences that can differ between individuals. The document outlines the basic methods for both, which involve restriction digestion, gel electrophoresis, and probing. It also lists their applications, which include DNA fingerprinting, genetic mapping, disease detection, and forensic analysis.
The document provides information about eukaryotic genome organization. It discusses that eukaryotic DNA is organized into chromosomes that are linear molecules located within the nucleus. The genome contains both coding and non-coding DNA sequences. It also describes various repetitive elements like transposons that make up a significant portion of the genome. Mobile elements can move within genomes and have contributed to genetic variation.
This document discusses genome analysis and sequencing. It provides background on identifying genes and studying disease processes through genome sequencing. It also describes goals of identifying gene function through experiments and challenges like gene prediction and repetitive sequences. Specific projects aimed at tracking human genetic variations and the first bacterial genome sequencing are summarized. Criteria for selecting early genomes to sequence are outlined. Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes are noted, including the presence of chromosomes, repeats, introns and heterochromatin/euchromatin. Different types of repetitive sequences like satellites, minisatellites and microsatellites are defined. Transposable elements in eukaryotes are also briefly introduced.
This document discusses functional genomics and its approaches. It defines functional genomics as the worldwide experimental approach to access the function of genes by using information from structural genomics. The key functional genomics approaches discussed are transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, interactomics, epigenetics, and nutrigenomics. Modern techniques discussed include expressed sequence tags (ESTs), serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), and microarray analysis.
Genetic mapping involves determining the location of genes and DNA markers on chromosomes. There are different types of mapping including genetic mapping which looks at linkage and inheritance, physical mapping which determines exact positions, and comparative mapping between species. Key techniques include linkage analysis using crosses and pedigrees, radiation hybrid mapping, restriction mapping, and somatic cell hybrid mapping. The goal is to construct genetic linkage maps that order markers based on recombination frequency to identify the location of genes.
SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphic), SNP mapping, SNP profile, SNP types, SNP analysis by gel electropherosis and by mass spectrometry, SNP effects, single strand conformation polymorphism, SNP advantages and disadvantages and application of SNP profile in drug choice
Gene cloning involves copying a gene and inserting it into a self-replicating vector to produce multiple copies of the gene. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique used to amplify specific genes. Both gene cloning and PCR are important for obtaining pure samples of genes and amplifying them for various applications like sequencing, expression of proteins, and genetic engineering.
The document discusses genome organization in eukaryotes. It describes how DNA is highly condensed and packaged within the nucleus through different levels of organization, from nucleosomes to 30nm fibers and higher-order structures. DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further condense into 30nm fibers. These fibers compact to form loops, domains, and chromosome territories within the nucleus. The precise structures at higher levels of organization are still being elucidated. Precise packaging is necessary to condense the large eukaryotic genome while allowing access for processes like transcription and replication.
This document discusses RFLP and VNTR analysis techniques. RFLP detects differences in DNA sequences by analyzing fragment length variations after restriction enzyme digestion. VNTRs are locations with variable numbers of short repeated sequences that can differ between individuals. The document outlines the basic methods for both, which involve restriction digestion, gel electrophoresis, and probing. It also lists their applications, which include DNA fingerprinting, genetic mapping, disease detection, and forensic analysis.
The document provides information about eukaryotic genome organization. It discusses that eukaryotic DNA is organized into chromosomes that are linear molecules located within the nucleus. The genome contains both coding and non-coding DNA sequences. It also describes various repetitive elements like transposons that make up a significant portion of the genome. Mobile elements can move within genomes and have contributed to genetic variation.
This document discusses genome analysis and sequencing. It provides background on identifying genes and studying disease processes through genome sequencing. It also describes goals of identifying gene function through experiments and challenges like gene prediction and repetitive sequences. Specific projects aimed at tracking human genetic variations and the first bacterial genome sequencing are summarized. Criteria for selecting early genomes to sequence are outlined. Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes are noted, including the presence of chromosomes, repeats, introns and heterochromatin/euchromatin. Different types of repetitive sequences like satellites, minisatellites and microsatellites are defined. Transposable elements in eukaryotes are also briefly introduced.
This document discusses functional genomics and its approaches. It defines functional genomics as the worldwide experimental approach to access the function of genes by using information from structural genomics. The key functional genomics approaches discussed are transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, interactomics, epigenetics, and nutrigenomics. Modern techniques discussed include expressed sequence tags (ESTs), serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), and microarray analysis.
Genetic mapping involves determining the location of genes and DNA markers on chromosomes. There are different types of mapping including genetic mapping which looks at linkage and inheritance, physical mapping which determines exact positions, and comparative mapping between species. Key techniques include linkage analysis using crosses and pedigrees, radiation hybrid mapping, restriction mapping, and somatic cell hybrid mapping. The goal is to construct genetic linkage maps that order markers based on recombination frequency to identify the location of genes.
Genetic mapping uses genetic techniques like cross-breeding experiments to construct maps showing gene positions. Physical mapping uses molecular techniques to examine DNA directly and construct maps showing sequence features. Different DNA markers like RFLPs, SSLPs, SNPs can be used for genetic mapping. Techniques for physical mapping include restriction mapping, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and sequence tagged site (STS) mapping. Integrating genetic and physical maps provides high resolution mapping needed for genome sequencing.
The document discusses the C-value paradox, which is the lack of relationship between genome size and organism complexity. It provides data on the wide range of genome sizes across different taxonomic groups. Introns and exons are described, with exons comprising the coding sequences and introns being removed from transcripts by splicing. Alternative splicing can generate multiple protein isoforms from a single gene. Repeated sequences, including satellites, minisatellites, microsatellites, transposons, SINEs and LINEs comprise a large portion of eukaryotic genomes.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (sn ps), haplotypes,Karan Veer Singh
This document provides an overview of SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms), including their biological background, terminology, detection techniques, and applications. It defines SNPs as single base changes that occur in at least 1% of a population. SNPs can be harmless, harmful, or latent, and are found primarily in noncoding regions, occurring around every 100-300 bases. The document discusses techniques for detecting known and unknown SNPs, including hybridization methods like microarrays and PCR, as well as enzyme-based techniques like nucleotide extension, cleavage, and ligation. It notes applications of SNPs in areas like gene discovery, disease association studies, diagnostics, and predicting treatment response.
Prokaryotic genomes are circular, double-stranded DNA contained within the nucleoid. They vary in length but are generally a few million base pairs. DNA supercoiling allows for tight packing of the genome.
Eukaryotic genomes are linear chromosomes associated with histone proteins within the nucleus. The DNA is wrapped around histone octamers to form nucleosomes, compacting the genome. Eukaryotic genomes are generally larger and contain more DNA than prokaryotic genomes.
Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes include genome size, number of chromosomes, ploidy level, association with histones, and method of compaction.
this is done by me and my team mates of Wayamba University Sri Lanka for our project.From now we decided to allow download this file.I would be greatful if you could send your comments..
And I'm willing to help you in similar works.I'm in final year of my degree(.BSc Biotechnology)..
pubudu_gokarella@yahoo.com
The document discusses genomic concepts including:
- Genomics is the study of genomes including large chromosomal segments containing many genes. Functional genomics aims to deduce information about DNA function.
- The human genome contains 3.2 billion base pairs with about 3% coding for proteins. Genome size is measured in picograms or base pair number and complexity is distinct from length.
- Chromosomal organization differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Eukaryotes possess multiple linear chromosomes packed into complexes while prokaryotes have single circular chromosomes.
- Much non-coding DNA in large genomes includes introns, regulatory elements, repeats and intergenic sequences. Nucleic acid thermodynamics
The document discusses the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes. Prokaryotes generally have a single, circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes within a membrane-bound nucleus. The human genome contains around 3 billion base pairs divided between nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. The nuclear genome encodes around 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes and is inherited equally from both parents, while mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited.
This document provides an overview of functional genomics and methods for transcriptome analysis. It discusses two main approaches - sequence-based approaches like expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), and microarray-based approaches. For sequence-based approaches, it describes how ESTs can provide gene discovery and expression information but have limitations. It outlines the SAGE methodology and gene index construction to organize EST data. For microarrays, it summarizes the basic workflow including sample preparation, hybridization, image analysis and data normalization to identify differentially expressed genes through statistical tests.
A physical map of a chromosome or a genome that shows the physical locations of genes and other DNA sequences of interest. Physical maps are used to help scientists identify and isolate genes by positional cloning.
According to the ICSM (Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping), there are five different types of maps: General Reference, Topographical, Thematic, Navigation Charts and Cadastral Maps and Plans.
Genetic polymorphism and It's Applicationsawaismalik78
Genetic polymorphism
Genetic polymorphism is the inheritance of a trait controlled by a single genetic locus with two alleles, in which the least common allele has a frequency of about 1% or greater. Genetic polymorphism is a difference in DNA sequence among individuals, groups, or populations.
Types of polymorphisms
Protein/enzyme polymorphisms
In the early days of human genetics, majority of polymorphisms were those associated with proteins and enzymes. To detect the polymorphism and a person’s genotype, one performed assays for the gene product, i.e., the protein or enzyme produced by the genetic blueprint.
DNA polymorphisms
The large class of polymorphisms are those that detect Slight variations at the level of DNA nucleotides.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms
A single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP is a sequence of DNA on which humans vary by one and only one nucleotide . Because humans differ by one nucleotide per every thousand or so nucleotides, there are millions of SNPs scattered throughout the human genome.
Tandem repeat polymorphisms
A tandem repeat polymorphism consists of a series of nucleotides that are repeated in tandem (i.e., one time after another). The polymorphism consists of the number of repeats.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a type in which organisms may be differentiated by analysis of patterns derived from cleavage of their DNA. If two organisms differ in the distance between sites of cleavage of a particular restriction endonuclease, the length of the fragments produced will differ when the DNA is digested with a restriction enzyme.
Applications of Genetic Polymorphism
The study of polymorphism has many uses in medicine, biological research, and law enforcement. Genetic diseases may be caused by a specific polymorphism. Scientists can look for these polymorphisms to determine if a person will develop the disease, or risks passing it on to his or her children.
ESTs are short sequences of DNA that represent genes expressed in certain tissues or organisms. They provide a quick and inexpensive way for scientists to discover new genes and map their positions in genomes. ESTs represent a snapshot of genes expressed in a tissue at a given time. Sequencing the beginning or end of cDNA clones produces 5' and 3' ESTs, which can help identify genes and study gene expression and regulation.
The document discusses genome organization in eukaryotes. It begins by defining the genome as an organism's entire hereditary information, encoded in DNA or RNA. In eukaryotes, DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers, which condense into chromosomes. The document then discusses various levels of chromatin organization, from DNA wrapping around nucleosomes to form beads on a string, to higher-order folding forming metaphase chromosomes. Chromatin exists in two types - loosely packed euchromatin and tightly packed heterochromatin. Overall, the document provides an overview of eukaryotic genome and chromatin organization from nucleosomes to chromosomes.
Sanger sequencing is one of the DNA sequencing methods used to identify and determine the sequence (Nucleotide) of DNA .This is an enzymatic method of sequencing developed by Fred Sanger.
Genomics is the study of genomes, including sequencing genomes and determining the complete set of proteins and genes in an organism. The first genomes sequenced included Haemophilus influenzae in 1995 and the human genome was completed in 2003, taking 13 years. Genomics provides information on genes, metabolic pathways, and the functioning of organisms through approaches like genome sequencing, structural genomics, functional genomics, comparative genomics, and proteomics.
This document summarizes methods for detecting single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). It discusses two main approaches: detecting unknown SNPs and detecting known SNPs. For unknown SNPs, global methods like restriction fragment length polymorphisms and targeted methods like denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis are used to scan DNA for new polymorphisms. For known SNPs, techniques like hybridization, primer extension, ligation, and mass spectrometry can be applied to screen individuals. Direct DNA sequencing is also discussed as the gold standard method, though historically it was labor-intensive. The document provides details on the principles and advantages/limitations of various SNP detection techniques.
The document discusses various types of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. It begins by explaining what PCR is and how it works to exponentially amplify DNA sequences. It then covers the history of PCR's invention and describes the basic components and steps of a PCR reaction. The document proceeds to discuss different PCR techniques like real-time PCR, asymmetric PCR, colony PCR, and nested PCR. It concludes by noting some applications and limitations of PCR.
The plant nuclear genome consists of DNA organized into chromosomes within the cell nucleus. It contains both coding and regulatory sequences. The plant nuclear genome is made up of DNA, histone and non-histone proteins. DNA is packaged into nucleosomes containing histones and wrapped into chromatin. Chromatin exists in two forms - euchromatin which is loosely packaged and genetically active, and heterochromatin which is tightly packaged. Specific sequences like centromeres and telomeres aid in chromosome structure and integrity. The nuclear genome also contains both single-copy and repetitive non-coding DNA sequences.
1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
Gene cloning techniques allow scientists to make multiple copies of gene-sized DNA fragments. The basic cloning process involves inserting a foreign gene into a bacterial plasmid, introducing the recombinant plasmid into bacterial cells, and allowing the bacteria to replicate and produce many copies of the gene. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific recognition sites, creating sticky ends that allow insertion of a foreign DNA fragment into a plasmid. Recombinant plasmids are then introduced into bacteria by transformation, allowing clones containing the gene of interest to be identified and isolated.
The document discusses various components that make up genomes, including genes, repetitive sequences, and different types of DNA. It describes the human genome in particular, noting it contains around 3 billion base pairs, with 3% coding for proteins. Around 40-50% is repetitive sequences from transposition. Genomics is defined as the study of genomes, including gene mapping and sequencing. Key components of genomes discussed include transposable elements like SINEs, LINEs, LTR retrotransposons, and other interspersed repeats. Comparative analysis of genome sequences can provide insights into gene number and function.
This document discusses various components that make up genomes. It describes how genomes contain both coding and non-coding DNA sequences. The non-coding portions include repetitive elements like short interspersed elements (SINEs), long interspersed elements (LINEs), endogenous retroviruses, and DNA transposons. Genome complexity is measured using DNA renaturation kinetics, where more complex genomes with greater unique sequences renature more slowly. Comparative genomics and identifying repetitive elements helps characterize genome structure and functional elements.
Genetic mapping uses genetic techniques like cross-breeding experiments to construct maps showing gene positions. Physical mapping uses molecular techniques to examine DNA directly and construct maps showing sequence features. Different DNA markers like RFLPs, SSLPs, SNPs can be used for genetic mapping. Techniques for physical mapping include restriction mapping, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and sequence tagged site (STS) mapping. Integrating genetic and physical maps provides high resolution mapping needed for genome sequencing.
The document discusses the C-value paradox, which is the lack of relationship between genome size and organism complexity. It provides data on the wide range of genome sizes across different taxonomic groups. Introns and exons are described, with exons comprising the coding sequences and introns being removed from transcripts by splicing. Alternative splicing can generate multiple protein isoforms from a single gene. Repeated sequences, including satellites, minisatellites, microsatellites, transposons, SINEs and LINEs comprise a large portion of eukaryotic genomes.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (sn ps), haplotypes,Karan Veer Singh
This document provides an overview of SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms), including their biological background, terminology, detection techniques, and applications. It defines SNPs as single base changes that occur in at least 1% of a population. SNPs can be harmless, harmful, or latent, and are found primarily in noncoding regions, occurring around every 100-300 bases. The document discusses techniques for detecting known and unknown SNPs, including hybridization methods like microarrays and PCR, as well as enzyme-based techniques like nucleotide extension, cleavage, and ligation. It notes applications of SNPs in areas like gene discovery, disease association studies, diagnostics, and predicting treatment response.
Prokaryotic genomes are circular, double-stranded DNA contained within the nucleoid. They vary in length but are generally a few million base pairs. DNA supercoiling allows for tight packing of the genome.
Eukaryotic genomes are linear chromosomes associated with histone proteins within the nucleus. The DNA is wrapped around histone octamers to form nucleosomes, compacting the genome. Eukaryotic genomes are generally larger and contain more DNA than prokaryotic genomes.
Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes include genome size, number of chromosomes, ploidy level, association with histones, and method of compaction.
this is done by me and my team mates of Wayamba University Sri Lanka for our project.From now we decided to allow download this file.I would be greatful if you could send your comments..
And I'm willing to help you in similar works.I'm in final year of my degree(.BSc Biotechnology)..
pubudu_gokarella@yahoo.com
The document discusses genomic concepts including:
- Genomics is the study of genomes including large chromosomal segments containing many genes. Functional genomics aims to deduce information about DNA function.
- The human genome contains 3.2 billion base pairs with about 3% coding for proteins. Genome size is measured in picograms or base pair number and complexity is distinct from length.
- Chromosomal organization differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Eukaryotes possess multiple linear chromosomes packed into complexes while prokaryotes have single circular chromosomes.
- Much non-coding DNA in large genomes includes introns, regulatory elements, repeats and intergenic sequences. Nucleic acid thermodynamics
The document discusses the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes. Prokaryotes generally have a single, circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes within a membrane-bound nucleus. The human genome contains around 3 billion base pairs divided between nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. The nuclear genome encodes around 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes and is inherited equally from both parents, while mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited.
This document provides an overview of functional genomics and methods for transcriptome analysis. It discusses two main approaches - sequence-based approaches like expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), and microarray-based approaches. For sequence-based approaches, it describes how ESTs can provide gene discovery and expression information but have limitations. It outlines the SAGE methodology and gene index construction to organize EST data. For microarrays, it summarizes the basic workflow including sample preparation, hybridization, image analysis and data normalization to identify differentially expressed genes through statistical tests.
A physical map of a chromosome or a genome that shows the physical locations of genes and other DNA sequences of interest. Physical maps are used to help scientists identify and isolate genes by positional cloning.
According to the ICSM (Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping), there are five different types of maps: General Reference, Topographical, Thematic, Navigation Charts and Cadastral Maps and Plans.
Genetic polymorphism and It's Applicationsawaismalik78
Genetic polymorphism
Genetic polymorphism is the inheritance of a trait controlled by a single genetic locus with two alleles, in which the least common allele has a frequency of about 1% or greater. Genetic polymorphism is a difference in DNA sequence among individuals, groups, or populations.
Types of polymorphisms
Protein/enzyme polymorphisms
In the early days of human genetics, majority of polymorphisms were those associated with proteins and enzymes. To detect the polymorphism and a person’s genotype, one performed assays for the gene product, i.e., the protein or enzyme produced by the genetic blueprint.
DNA polymorphisms
The large class of polymorphisms are those that detect Slight variations at the level of DNA nucleotides.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms
A single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP is a sequence of DNA on which humans vary by one and only one nucleotide . Because humans differ by one nucleotide per every thousand or so nucleotides, there are millions of SNPs scattered throughout the human genome.
Tandem repeat polymorphisms
A tandem repeat polymorphism consists of a series of nucleotides that are repeated in tandem (i.e., one time after another). The polymorphism consists of the number of repeats.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a type in which organisms may be differentiated by analysis of patterns derived from cleavage of their DNA. If two organisms differ in the distance between sites of cleavage of a particular restriction endonuclease, the length of the fragments produced will differ when the DNA is digested with a restriction enzyme.
Applications of Genetic Polymorphism
The study of polymorphism has many uses in medicine, biological research, and law enforcement. Genetic diseases may be caused by a specific polymorphism. Scientists can look for these polymorphisms to determine if a person will develop the disease, or risks passing it on to his or her children.
ESTs are short sequences of DNA that represent genes expressed in certain tissues or organisms. They provide a quick and inexpensive way for scientists to discover new genes and map their positions in genomes. ESTs represent a snapshot of genes expressed in a tissue at a given time. Sequencing the beginning or end of cDNA clones produces 5' and 3' ESTs, which can help identify genes and study gene expression and regulation.
The document discusses genome organization in eukaryotes. It begins by defining the genome as an organism's entire hereditary information, encoded in DNA or RNA. In eukaryotes, DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers, which condense into chromosomes. The document then discusses various levels of chromatin organization, from DNA wrapping around nucleosomes to form beads on a string, to higher-order folding forming metaphase chromosomes. Chromatin exists in two types - loosely packed euchromatin and tightly packed heterochromatin. Overall, the document provides an overview of eukaryotic genome and chromatin organization from nucleosomes to chromosomes.
Sanger sequencing is one of the DNA sequencing methods used to identify and determine the sequence (Nucleotide) of DNA .This is an enzymatic method of sequencing developed by Fred Sanger.
Genomics is the study of genomes, including sequencing genomes and determining the complete set of proteins and genes in an organism. The first genomes sequenced included Haemophilus influenzae in 1995 and the human genome was completed in 2003, taking 13 years. Genomics provides information on genes, metabolic pathways, and the functioning of organisms through approaches like genome sequencing, structural genomics, functional genomics, comparative genomics, and proteomics.
This document summarizes methods for detecting single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). It discusses two main approaches: detecting unknown SNPs and detecting known SNPs. For unknown SNPs, global methods like restriction fragment length polymorphisms and targeted methods like denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis are used to scan DNA for new polymorphisms. For known SNPs, techniques like hybridization, primer extension, ligation, and mass spectrometry can be applied to screen individuals. Direct DNA sequencing is also discussed as the gold standard method, though historically it was labor-intensive. The document provides details on the principles and advantages/limitations of various SNP detection techniques.
The document discusses various types of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. It begins by explaining what PCR is and how it works to exponentially amplify DNA sequences. It then covers the history of PCR's invention and describes the basic components and steps of a PCR reaction. The document proceeds to discuss different PCR techniques like real-time PCR, asymmetric PCR, colony PCR, and nested PCR. It concludes by noting some applications and limitations of PCR.
The plant nuclear genome consists of DNA organized into chromosomes within the cell nucleus. It contains both coding and regulatory sequences. The plant nuclear genome is made up of DNA, histone and non-histone proteins. DNA is packaged into nucleosomes containing histones and wrapped into chromatin. Chromatin exists in two forms - euchromatin which is loosely packaged and genetically active, and heterochromatin which is tightly packaged. Specific sequences like centromeres and telomeres aid in chromosome structure and integrity. The nuclear genome also contains both single-copy and repetitive non-coding DNA sequences.
1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
Gene cloning techniques allow scientists to make multiple copies of gene-sized DNA fragments. The basic cloning process involves inserting a foreign gene into a bacterial plasmid, introducing the recombinant plasmid into bacterial cells, and allowing the bacteria to replicate and produce many copies of the gene. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific recognition sites, creating sticky ends that allow insertion of a foreign DNA fragment into a plasmid. Recombinant plasmids are then introduced into bacteria by transformation, allowing clones containing the gene of interest to be identified and isolated.
The document discusses various components that make up genomes, including genes, repetitive sequences, and different types of DNA. It describes the human genome in particular, noting it contains around 3 billion base pairs, with 3% coding for proteins. Around 40-50% is repetitive sequences from transposition. Genomics is defined as the study of genomes, including gene mapping and sequencing. Key components of genomes discussed include transposable elements like SINEs, LINEs, LTR retrotransposons, and other interspersed repeats. Comparative analysis of genome sequences can provide insights into gene number and function.
This document discusses various components that make up genomes. It describes how genomes contain both coding and non-coding DNA sequences. The non-coding portions include repetitive elements like short interspersed elements (SINEs), long interspersed elements (LINEs), endogenous retroviruses, and DNA transposons. Genome complexity is measured using DNA renaturation kinetics, where more complex genomes with greater unique sequences renature more slowly. Comparative genomics and identifying repetitive elements helps characterize genome structure and functional elements.
genome structure and repetitive sequence.pdfNetHelix
Welcome to our channel, where science meets discovery! In today's enlightening video, we unravel the mysteries of life at its most fundamental level - the chromosomes.
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DNA organization or Genetic makeup in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic SystemsBir Bahadur Thapa
DNA organization or Genetic makeup in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Systems!! It is prepared under the syllabus of Tribhuwan University, Nepal, MSc. 3rd Semester as a lecture class!!
Prokaryotic genetic material differs from eukaryotes in several key ways:
1. Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus and have their DNA located in the nucleoid. They typically have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes.
2. Prokaryotic genes are arranged in operons and expressed together, whereas eukaryotic genes each have their own promoter and are independently expressed.
3. DNA replication in prokaryotes is rapid and ongoing, starting from a single origin of replication site, while eukaryotes tightly regulate replication during the cell cycle.
genetics is a study of heredity. By studying microbial genetics, which is the most basic, one can extrapolate it to complex genetic studies of complex biological systems. effect of mutagens on genes is eye opening
genetics is a study of heredity, by studying microbial genetics, which is the most basic, one can extrapolate it to complex genetic studies of complex biological systems. effect of mutagens on genes is eye opening
Microbial genetics is a subject area within microbiology and genetic engineering. This involves the study of the genotype of microbial species and also the expression system in the form of phenotypes
UNIQUE AND REPETITIVE DNA.a derailed presentationkingmaxton8
The document discusses unique and repetitive DNA sequences found in eukaryotic genomes. It defines unique DNA as sequences present in a single copy that encode for proteins. Repetitive DNA makes up a large portion of eukaryotic genomes and includes highly repetitive sequences like satellite DNA near centromeres, and moderately repetitive sequences dispersed throughout genomes like transposons. The repetitive elements are further classified based on length and copy number as tandem repeats including satellites, minisatellites and microsatellites.
DNA PROFILING of human dna using various mathodsAjay Kumar
Human DNA contains 3 billion base pairs organized into 23 chromosomes that code for approximately 50,000 genes. While only a small percentage of DNA codes for proteins, some non-coding DNA is repetitive and variable between individuals. One such type is called Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs), where the same short sequence is repeated next to itself in varying numbers in different locations in the genome. The variation in number of repeats between people allows DNA fingerprinting techniques like Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) to identify individuals based on differences in lengths of DNA fragments after restriction enzyme digestion.
Genomics involves sequencing, analyzing, and assembling genomes to understand structure and function. Key points about genomes include:
- Prokaryotic genomes are usually circular and compact, with operons of related genes. Prokaryotic DNA is packaged via supercoiling without chromatin.
- Mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes are usually circular as well, encoding tRNAs, rRNAs and proteins. They resemble bacterial genomes but are much smaller due to gene loss.
- Organelle genomes are usually maternally inherited and range in size from 6kb to 2MB, encoding genes for respiration and photosynthesis respectively.
1. DNA carries genetic information that is stored in genes located on chromosomes within cells.
2. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by Watson and Crick to be a double helix with complementary nucleotide base pairing.
3. Genes contain the instructions to make proteins and RNA and are arranged linearly along chromosomes in eukaryotic cells.
Bacterial genomes provide insights into bacterial function, origins, and diversity. They range in size from 0.6 to over 10 megabase pairs. Analysis of bacterial genomes reveals gene content and organization, as well as base pair composition trends. Bacterial chromosomes are typically circular and condensed via supercoiling, though some bacteria have linear or multiple chromosomes. Genome analysis techniques like GC skew help locate origins of replication.
1. Eukaryotic genomes contain nuclear DNA as well as organelle DNA from mitochondria and chloroplasts. Genome size, or C-value, varies greatly between species from 106 bp in prokaryotes to over 1011 bp in some amphibians.
2. Renaturation kinetics can be used to measure genome complexity based on how quickly denatured DNA strands reanneal, with more common sequences reassociating faster. A COT curve plots the percentage of renatured DNA over time at different DNA concentrations.
3. Eukaryotic genomes contain genes, repetitive sequences like satellites and transposons, and non-coding DNA. While genes and complexity generally increase together in lower e
Genome organisation in eukaryotes...........!!!!!!!!!!!manish chovatiya
This document discusses the organization of eukaryotic genomes. It explains that eukaryotic genomes are much larger than prokaryotic genomes, with most of the DNA being non-coding. Eukaryotic genomes contain multiple linear chromosomes, introns, repetitive sequences, and both coding and non-coding RNA genes. The document also describes different types of repetitive elements like tandem repeats, transposons, retrotransposons, LINEs, SINEs and their roles in increasing genome size. Overall, the document provides an overview of the complex structure of eukaryotic genomes compared to simpler prokaryotic genomes.
Chromosomes are structures that package and organize DNA and associated proteins. In eukaryotes, DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form chromatin, which condenses into linear or circular chromosomes. Key features of eukaryotic chromosomes include centromeres, telomeres, and repetitive sequences. Chromosomes are compacted through DNA supercoiling and packaging into nucleosomes. The structure and packaging of chromosomes allows for efficient storage and regulation of the genetic material.
This document discusses DNA sequencing and bioinformatics. It explains that DNA sequencing has become much cheaper and faster, allowing entire genomes to be sequenced. Sequencing the human genome originally cost billions and took years, but can now be done for under $100,000. Understanding DNA sequences allows for preventing and curing diseases. The document goes on to describe what genes look like, where they are found, how they encode proteins, and how bioinformaticians can identify genes by finding open reading frames in DNA sequences.
The document discusses the organization and structure of the human genome. It notes that the genome contains DNA arranged into genes on chromosomes within the cell nucleus, as well as mitochondrial DNA containing 37 genes. The human genome consists of 24 chromosomes in the nucleus plus the mitochondrial genome. DNA is organized into nucleosomes and packaged into chromatin and chromosomes. Genes encode instructions to make proteins and are regulated differently between cell types.
The document summarizes key aspects of eukaryotic genome complexity. It notes that while eukaryotic genomes are generally larger than prokaryotic genomes, genome size does not correlate directly with genetic complexity. Much of the increased size of eukaryotic genomes is due to noncoding sequences, including introns within genes and repetitive sequences between genes. Introns account for much more DNA than exons in higher eukaryotes. Other factors contributing to large eukaryotic genomes include repeated genes and families, as well as mobile repetitive elements like transposons. The DNA is tightly packaged into chromatin and condensed into linear chromosomes for mitosis.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
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Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
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2. Genome!
• The genome is all the DNA in a cell.!
– All the DNA on all the chromosomes!
– Includes genes, intergenic sequences, repeats!
• Specifically, it is all the DNA in an organelle.!
• Eukaryotes can have 2-3 genomes!
– Nuclear genome!
– Mitochondrial genome!
– Plastid genome!
• If not specified, genome usually refers to
the nuclear genome.!
3. Genomics!
• Genomics is the study of genomes,
including large chromosomal segments
containing many genes. !
• The initial phase of genomics aims to map
and sequence an initial set of entire
genomes.!
• Functional genomics aims to deduce
information about the function of DNA
sequences.!
– Should continue long after the initial genome
sequences have been completed.!
4. Human genome!
• 22 autosome pairs + 2 sex chromosomes!
• 3 billion base pairs in the haploid genome!
– About 3% codes for proteins!
– About 40-50% is repetitive, made by (retro)transposition!
– What is the function of the remaining 50%?!
!
• Where and what are the 30,000 to 40,000 genes? Searching DNA
for open reading frames seems to be the most logical way of finding genes, but just because an open
reading frame exists does not definitively answer whether it is transcribed.!
In the Genomic revolution:!
• Know (close to) all the genes in a genome, and the
sequence of the proteins they encode.!
• No longer look at just individual genes!
– Examine whole genomes or systems of genes!
5. Genomics, Genetics and Biochemistry!
• Genetics: study of inherited phenotypes!
The whole point of genetics is to link genes with phenotypes!
• Genomics: study of genomes!
!Functional genomics - is the attachment of information about function
to knowledge of DNA sequence.!
• Biochemistry: study of the chemistry of living
organisms and/or cells!
• Revolution launched by full genome sequencing!
– Many biological problems now have finite (but
complex) solutions.!
– New era will see an even greater interaction among
these three disciplines!
6. Finding the function of genes!
• Genes were originally defined in terms of!
phenotypes of mutants!
• Now we have sequences of lots of DNA from!
a variety of organisms, so ...!
• Which portions of DNA actually do something?!
• What do they do?!
• code for protein or some other product?!
• regulate expression?!
• used in replication, etc?!
7. Much DNA in large genomes is non-coding!
• Complex genomes have roughly 10x to 30x
more DNA than is required to encode all the
RNAs or proteins in the organism.!
• Contributors to the non-coding DNA include:!
– Introns in genes!
– Regulatory elements of genes!
– Multiple copies of genes, including
pseudogenes!
– Intergenic sequences!
– Interspersed repeats!
8. Distinct components in complex genomes!
• Highly repeated DNA (HRS)!
– R (repetition frequency) >100,000!
– Almost no information, low complexity!
• Moderately repeated DNA (MRS)!
– 10<R<10,000!
– Little information, moderate complexity!
• Single copy DNA (Unique)!
– R=1 or 2!
– Much information, high complexity!
9. Re-association kinetics measure sequence complexity!
+
nucleation
2nd
order,
slow
1st
order,
fast
zippering
Denatured DNA
(two single
strands)
A short duplex
forms at a region
of complementarity.
Renatured
DNA
(two strands in
duplex)
10. Sequence complexity is not the same as length!
• Complexity is the number of base pairs of
unique, i.e. nonrepeating, DNA.!
• E.g. consider 1000 bp DNA.!
• 500 bp is sequence a, present in a single copy.!
• 500 bp is sequence b (100 bp) repeated 5X!
a ! b b b b b!
|___________|__|__|__|__|__|!
L = length = 1000 bp = a + 5b!
N = complexity = 600 bp = a + b!
11. Less complex DNA renatures faster!
Let a, b, ... z represent a string of base pairs in DNA that can
hybridize. For simplicity in arithmetic, we will use 10 bp per
letter.!
!
DNA 1 = ab. This is very low sequence complexity, 2 letters or
20 bp.!
DNA 2 = cdefghijklmnopqrstuv. This is 10 times more complex
(20 letters or 200 bp).!
DNA 3 =
izyajczkblqfreighttrainrunninsofastelizabethcottonqwftzxvbifyoud
ontbelieveimleavingyoujustcountthedaysimgonerxcvwpowentdo
wntothecrossroadstriedtocatchariderobertjohnsonpzvmwcomeon
homeintomykitchentrad. !
This is 100 times more complex (200 letters or 2000 bp).!
12. Less complex DNA renatures faster, #2!
DNA 1 DNA 2 DNA 3
ab
cdefghijklmnopqrstuv
izyajczkblqfreighttrainrunninsofastelizabethcottonqwf
tzxvbifyoudontbelieveimleavingyoujustcountthedaysi
mgonerxcvwpowentdowntothecrossroadstriedtocatch
ariderobertjohnsonpzvmwcomeonhomeintomykitche
ntrad
ab ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab
etc.
cdefghijklmnopqrstuv
cdefghijklmnopqrstuv
cdefghijklmnopqrstuv
Molar concentration of each sequence:
150 microM 15 microM 1.5 microM
Relative rates of reassociation:
100 10 1
For an equal mass/vol:!
13. Five main classes of repetitive DNA
1. Interspersed repeats
2. Processed pseudogenes
3. Simple sequence repeats (SSRs)
4. Segmental duplications
5. Blocks of tandem repeats
Page 546-550
14. Five main classes of repetitive DNA
• Constitute ~45% of the human genome.
• They involve RNA intermediates (retro-elements) or
DNA intermediates (DNA transposons - 3% of human genome).
Examples
Short interspersed elements (SINEs); They are retro-tranposons, DNA
segments that move via an RNA intermediate
ü These include Alu repeats, most abundant repeated DNA in primates!
ü Short, about 300 bp, about 1 million copies!
ü Cause new mutations in humans!
Long interspersed elements (LINEs); !
• Moderately abundant, long repeats!
• LINE1 family: most abundant!
• Up to 7000 bp long, about 50,000 copies!
• Retrotransposons!
• Encode reverse transcriptase and other enzymes required for transposition!
• Cause new mutations in humans!
• Homologous repeats found in all mammals and many other animals!
1. Interspersed repeats
Retroposons - repetitive
DNA fragments which
are inserted into
chromosomes after
they had been reverse
transcribed from any
RNA molecule
Retrotransposons - encode reverse transcriptase (RT). Therefore, they are
autonomous elements with regard to transposition activity
15. Five main classes of repetitive DNA cont.
Page 547
These genes have a stop codon or frameshift mutation
and do not encode a functional protein. They commonly
arise from retro-transposition, or following gene duplication
and subsequent gene loss.
2. Processed pseudogenes
16. Five main classes of repetitive DNAcont.
Page 546
(i) Microsatellites: from one to a dozen base pairs
Examples: (A)n, (CA)n, (CGG)n (CCCA)n (GGGT)n
These may be formed by replication slippage.
(ii) Minisatellites: a dozen to 500 base pairs
Simple sequence repeats of a particular length and
composition occur preferentially in different species.
In humans, an expansion of triplet repeats such as CAG
is associated with at least 14 disorders (including
Huntington s disease).
3. Simple sequence repeats
17. Five main classes of repetitive DNA
Page 547
• These are blocks of about 1 kilobase to 300 kb that are
copied intra- or inter- chromosomally, about 5% of the
human genome consists of segmental duplications.
• Duplicated regions often share very high (99%) sequence
identity.
• As an example, consider a group of lipocalin genes on
human chromosome 9.
4. Segmental duplications
18. Five main classes of repetitive DNA
These include telomeric repeats (e.g. TTAGGG in
humans) and centromeric repeats (e.g. a 171 base pair
repeat of α satellite DNA in humans).
Such repetitive DNA can span millions of base pairs,
and it is often species-specific.
5. Blocks of tandem repeats
19. Finding genes in eukaryotic DNA
Types of genes include: -
• protein-coding genes
• pseudogenes
• functional RNA genes
-tRNA - transfer RNA
-rRNA - ribosomal RNA
-snoRNA - small nucleolar RNA
-snRNA - small nuclear RNA
-miRNA - microRNA
Page 552
Two of the biggest challenges in understanding any
eukaryotic genome are
• defining what a gene is, and
• identifying genes within genomic DNA
20. Finding genes in eukaryotic DNA
Protein-coding genes are relatively easy to find in
prokaryotes, because the gene density is high (about
one gene per kilobase).
In eukaryotes, gene density is lower, and exons are
interrupted by introns.
Page 553
21. Eukaryotic gene prediction distinguish several kinds of exons
There are several kinds of exons:
- noncoding
- initial coding exons
- internal exons
- terminal exons
- some single-exon genes are intronless
22. Eukaryotic chromosomes can be dynamic
Chromosomes can be highly dynamic, in several ways.
• Whole genome duplication (auto-polyploidy) can occur,
as in yeast (Chapter 15) and some plants.
• The genomes of two distinct species can merge, as in the
mule (male donkey, 2n = 62 and female horse, 2n = 64)
• An individual can acquire an extra copy of a chromosome
(e.g. Down syndrome, TS13, TS18)
• Chromosomes can fuse; e.g. human chromosome 2 derives
from a fusion of two ancestral primate chromosomes
• Chromosomal regions can be inverted (hemophilia A)
• Portions of chromosomes can be deleted
• Segmental and other duplications occur
• Chromatin diminution can occur (Ascaris)
Page 565
23. denaturation – renaturation of DNA!
- Tm : melting temperature - position in melting profile
where 50% is single-stranded!
24. Denaturation and Renaturation!
• Heating double stranded DNA can overcome the hydrogen
bonds holding it together and cause the strands to separate
resulting in denaturation of the DNA!
• When cooled relatively weak hydrogen bonds between bases
can reform and the DNA renatures!
TACTCGACATGCTAGCAC!
ATGAGCTGTACGATCGTG!
Double stranded DNA!
TACTCGACATGCTAGCAC!
ATGAGCTGTACGATCGTG!
Double stranded DNA!
TACTCGACATGCTAGCAC!
ATGAGCTGTACGATCGTG!
Denatured DNA!
Single stranded DNA!
25. !
Renaturation!
!
!- Renaturation is NOT simply the reverse of denaturation!
! !- Collision of complementary strands required !
! !- nucleic acid strands are negatively charged in the phosphate moiety !
! ! !a -1 charge per nucleotide => repulsion !
! ! ! !=> hence : requires shielding to allow strands to approach !
! ! ! ! ! one another (use of Na+ or K+ salts)!
! !!
!- Four parameters in renaturation kinetics!
! !1) Concentration of cations!
! !2) Incubation temperature (usually 20 to 25 °C below Tm)!
! !3) DNA concentration (related to complexity of the DNA )!
! !4) Size of the fragments!
!
26. !
!
!
!
DNA denaturation and renaturation : strategic aspects!
native DNA!
fast chilling!
slow chilling!
very limited renaturation!
(palindromes?)!
almost complete
renaturation!
Hyperchromicity effect : disruption of the stacking !
=> 30 to 40 % increase of UV (260 nm) absorption!
27. Denaturation and Renaturation!
• DNA with a high guanine and cytosine content has relatively
more hydrogen bonds between strands!
• This is because for every GC base pair 3 hydrogen bonds
are made while for AT base pairs only 2 bonds are made !
• Thus higher GC content is reflected in higher melting or
denaturation temperature!
50 % GC content Intermediate melting temperature!
!
67 % GC content –!
High melting temperature!
TGCTCGACGTGCTCG!
ACGAGCTGCACGAGC!
33 % GC content –!
Low melting temperature!
TACTAGACATTCTAG!
ATGATCTGTAAGATC!
TACTCGACAGGCTAG!
ATGAGCTGTCCGATC!
28. Comparison of melting temperatures can be used to
determine the GC content of an organisms genome!
OD260!
0!
1.0!
65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Temperature (oC)!
Tm = 85 oC!Tm = 75 oC!
Double
stranded
DNA!
Single
strand
ed
DNA!
Relatively
low GC
content!
Relatively
high GC
content!
Tm is the
temperature at
which half the
DNA is melted!
29. !
!
!
!
Idealized course of reassociation, expresssed in a Cot diagram.!
Fully
denaturated!
at the start : !
At the end of !
renaturation!
Reaction is halfway!
30. • The value of k can be experimentally derived from a re-association
curve (Cot curve).!
• This value depends on:-!
ü cation concentration, !
ü temperature, !
ü fragment size, etc. !
!
!!
• Genomes (especially eukaryotic genomes) may contain-!
! !- unique sequences (single copy)!
! !- moderately repeated sequences!
! !- highly repetitive DNA!
!
• Cot analysis allows characterisation of sequence complexity in
terms of different subclasses of sequences depending on degree
of repetitivity, and also allows fractionation of the different
subsets.!
33. !
!
!
!
Complexity log N (number of base pairs)!
Contributions !
of the different!
DNA-compounds!
Repetitive DNA!
Unique DNA!
mixture!
degree of repetition!
pure mixed!pure mixed!
Theoretical Cot-curve of a DNA, that consists of a mixture of two equal parts of DNA !
sequences of a particular of repetitive degree.!
The larger and more complex an organisms genome is, the longer it will take for
complimentary strands to bum into one another and hybridize!
36. Hybridization!
• Because DNA sequences will seek out and hybridize with
other sequences with which they base pair in a specific way
much information can be gained about unknown DNA using
single stranded DNA of known sequence!
!
• Short sequences of single stranded DNA can be used as
probes to detect the presence of their complimentary
sequence in any number of applications including:!
– Southern blots!
– Northern blots (in which RNA is probed)!
– In situ hybridization!
– Dot blots . . .!
• In addition, the renaturation or hybridization of DNA in
solution can tell much about the nature of organism s
genomes!
37. Hybridization!
TACTCGACAGGCTAG!
CTGATGGTCATGAGCTGTCCGATCGATCAT!
DNA from source X !
TACTCGACAGGCTAG!
Hybridization
Because the source of any
single strand of DNA is
irrelevant, merely the
sequence is important, DNA
from different sources can
form double helix as long as
their sequences are
compatible!
DNA from source Y !