This document discusses genetics and human diseases. It begins with an introduction to genetics, noting that humans have around 30,000 genes. It then describes different types of human diseases, including those determined genetically, environmentally, or with contributions from both. The document discusses different types of genetic mutations and how they can cause inherited diseases or cancers. It also outlines different patterns of Mendelian inheritance including autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and sex-linked traits. Specific genetic disorders are provided as examples, such as Marfan syndrome and familial hypercholesterolemia.
Linkage refers to the presence of two different genes on the same chromosome . Two genes that occur on the same chromosome are said to be linked, and those that occur very close together are tightly linked.
Population genetics is a sub field of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of Evolutionary biology.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique. The term chromosome comes from the Greek words for color (chroma) and body (soma). In the present slide, the structural chromosomal aberration is discussed. The diseases caused due to such aberrations are also explained. Hope you all enjoy. Feel free to comment if have any further clarifications.
XCI is a dosage-compensation mechanism that evolved to equalize expression levels of x-linked genes in female (2x) and male (1x) by transcriptional silencing of one x-chromosome in female mammalian cells.
XIC
It is responsible for initiating X inactivation in cis: an X-chromosome fragment that carries a Xic can become
inactivated, whereas one in which the Xic is missing cannot.
The Xic is also involved in ‘counting’, whereby only a single X is kept active per two sets of autosomes in a cell, and all other Xic-carrying chromosomes are inactivated.
Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell.
In other words, they are changes in the number and or arrangement of genes in the chromosomes.
The genetic material must produce a large number of copies of itself during the life cycle of an organism. The process by which a DNA molecule makes its identical copies is called DNA replication. The DNA molecule that undergoes replication may be termed as ‘parent molecule or template molecule, while the two molecules produced by replication may be called progeny molecules or daughter molecules.
A genetic disease is any disease caused by an abnormality in the genetic makeup of an individual. The genetic abnormality can range from minuscule to major - from a discrete mutation in a single base in the DNA of a single gene to a gross chromosomal abnormality involving the addition or subtraction of an entire chromosome or set of chromosomes. Some people inherit genetic disorders from the parents, while acquired changes or mutations in a preexisting gene or group of genes cause other genetic diseases. Genetic mutations can occur either randomly or due to some environmental exposure.
Linkage refers to the presence of two different genes on the same chromosome . Two genes that occur on the same chromosome are said to be linked, and those that occur very close together are tightly linked.
Population genetics is a sub field of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of Evolutionary biology.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique. The term chromosome comes from the Greek words for color (chroma) and body (soma). In the present slide, the structural chromosomal aberration is discussed. The diseases caused due to such aberrations are also explained. Hope you all enjoy. Feel free to comment if have any further clarifications.
XCI is a dosage-compensation mechanism that evolved to equalize expression levels of x-linked genes in female (2x) and male (1x) by transcriptional silencing of one x-chromosome in female mammalian cells.
XIC
It is responsible for initiating X inactivation in cis: an X-chromosome fragment that carries a Xic can become
inactivated, whereas one in which the Xic is missing cannot.
The Xic is also involved in ‘counting’, whereby only a single X is kept active per two sets of autosomes in a cell, and all other Xic-carrying chromosomes are inactivated.
Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell.
In other words, they are changes in the number and or arrangement of genes in the chromosomes.
The genetic material must produce a large number of copies of itself during the life cycle of an organism. The process by which a DNA molecule makes its identical copies is called DNA replication. The DNA molecule that undergoes replication may be termed as ‘parent molecule or template molecule, while the two molecules produced by replication may be called progeny molecules or daughter molecules.
A genetic disease is any disease caused by an abnormality in the genetic makeup of an individual. The genetic abnormality can range from minuscule to major - from a discrete mutation in a single base in the DNA of a single gene to a gross chromosomal abnormality involving the addition or subtraction of an entire chromosome or set of chromosomes. Some people inherit genetic disorders from the parents, while acquired changes or mutations in a preexisting gene or group of genes cause other genetic diseases. Genetic mutations can occur either randomly or due to some environmental exposure.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
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The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2. INTRODUCTION
Humans have only about 30,000 genes
Genetics is study of single or few genes and their
phenotypic effects.
Genomics is the study of all the genes in the
genome and their phenotypic effects
3. Any 2 individuals share greater than 99.5% of
their DNA sequences.
Remarkable diversity of humans is encoded in
less than 0.5% of our DNA
4. DISEASES
time-honored classification of human diseases
(1) those that are genetically determined,
(2) those that are almost entirely
environmentally determined,
(3) those to which both nature and nurture
contribute.
5. MUTATIONS
PERMANENT change in
DNA
GENE MUTATION: (may, and often,
result in a single base error)
CHROMOSOME MUTATION:
(visible chromosome change)
GENOME MUTATION: (whole
chromosome)
6. Those that affect germ cells are transmitted to
the progeny and may give rise to inherited
diseases.
Mutations in somatic cells are not transmitted to
the progeny but are important in the causation of
cancers and some congenital malformations.
7. Point mutations result from the substitution of a
single nucleotide base by a different base,
resulting in the replacement of one amino acid by
another in the protein product.
EX: sickle cell anemia.
"nonsense" mutations interrupt translation, and
the resultant truncated proteins are rapidly
degraded.
9. Frameshift mutations occur when the insertion or
deletion of one or two base pairs alters the
reading frame of the DNA strand
Trinucleotide repeat mutations
mutations are characterized by amplification of a
sequence of 3 nucleotides.
12. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT
Disease is in HETEROZYGOTES
NEITHER parent may have the disease (NEW mut.)
REDUCED PENETRANCE
(environment?, other genes?)
VARIABLE EXPRESSIVITY
(environment?, other genes?)
DELAYED ONSET
May have a
Usually result in a REDUCED
PRODUCTION or INACTIVE protein
15. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE
Disease is in HOMOZYGOTES
UNIFORM expression than AD
More
Often COMPLETE PENETRANCE
Onset usually EARLY in life
NEW mutations rarely detected clinically
Proteins show LOSS of FUNCTION
Include ALL inborn errors of metabolism
MUCH more common that autosomal dominant
18. SEX (“X”) LINKED
MALES ONLY
HIS SONS are OK, right?
ALL his DAUGHTERS are CARRIERS
The “Y” chromosome is NOT
homologous to the “X”, i.e., the concept
of dominant/recessive has no meaning
here
HETEROZYGOUS FEMALES have no
phenotypic expression (carriers)
….usually, this means autosomal
“recessive”, right?
19. SEX (“X”) LINKED
DUCHENNE MUSCULAR
DYSTROPHY
HEMOPHILIA , A and B
G6PD DEFICIENCY
AGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA
WISKOTT-ALDRICH SYNDROME
DIABETES INSIPIDUS
LESCH-NYHAN SYNDROME
FRAGILE-X SYNDROME
20. SEX LINKED
PEDIGREE
1) MALES ONLY, sons of affected males are OK
2) GENERATION SKIPPING DOESN’T MATTER
21. SINGLE GENE DISORDERS
ENZYME DEFECT (Most of them, e.g., PKU)
Accumulation of substrate
Lack of product
Failure to inactivate a protein which causes damage
RECEPTOR/TRANSPORT PROTEIN DEFECT
(Familial Hypercholesterolemia)
STRUCTURAL PROTEIN DEFECT (Marfan,
Ehl-Dan)
Structure
Function
Quantity
ENZYMEDEFECT WHICH INCREASES DRUG
SUSCEPTIBILITY: G6PDPrimaquine
22. MARFAN SYNDROME
autosomal dominant disorder of connective tissues,
the basic biochemical abnormality affects fibrillin 1.
This glycoprotein, secreted by fibroblasts, is the major
component of microfibrils found in the extracellular
matrix.
Microfibrils serve as scaffolding for the deposition of
elastin and are considered integral components of
elastic fibers.
Fibrillin 1 is encoded by the FBN1 gene, which maps
to chromosome 15q21.
Mutations in the FBN1 gene are found in all patients
with Marfan syndrome.
25. SKELETAL ABNORMALITIES
Patients have a slender, elongated habitus with
abnormally long legs, arms, and fingers
(arachnodactyly);
a high-arched palate;
hyperextensibility of joints.
A variety of spinal deformities, such as severe
kyphoscoliosis, may appear.
The chest is deformed, exhibiting either pectus
excavatum (i.e., deeply depressed sternum) or a
pigeon-breast deformity.
26.
27. ocular change is bilateral dislocation, or
subluxation, of the lens owing to weakness of its
suspensory ligaments.
It should be noted that the ciliary zonules that
support the lens are devoid of elastin and are
made up exclusively of fibrillin
30. cardiovascular system.
Fragmentation of the elastic fibers in the tunica
media of the aorta predisposes to aneurysmal
dilation and aortic dissection
The cardiac valves, especially the mitral and, less
commonly, the tricuspid valve, may be
excessively distensible and regurgitant (floppy
valve syndrome), giving rise to congestive cardiac
failure
Death from aortic rupture may occur at any age
and is the most common cause of death. Less
commonly, cardiac failure is the terminal event.
31. EHLERS-DANLOS SYNDROMES
(EDSs) are characterized by defects in collagen
synthesis or structure.
30 distinct types of collagen, and all of them have
characteristic tissue distributions and are the
products of different genes.
the clinical heterogeneity of EDS can be
explained by mutations in different collagen
genes.
32. tissues rich in collagen, such as skin, ligaments,
and joints, are frequently involved in most
variants of EDS.
Because the abnormal collagen fibers lack
adequate tensile strength, skin is hyperextensible
and joints are hypermobile.
These features permit grotesque contortions,
such as bending the thumb backward to touch
the forearm and bending the knee upward to
create almost a right angle.
33.
34.
35. The skin is extraordinarily stretchable, extremely
fragile, and vulnerable to trauma.
Minor injuries produce gaping defects, and
surgical repair or any surgical intervention is
accomplished only with great difficulty because of
the lack of normal tensile strength.
36. The basic defect in connective tissue may lead to
serious internal complications, including
rupture of the colon and large arteries (vascular
EDS);
ocular fragility, with rupture of the cornea and
retinal detachment (kyphoscoliosis EDS);
diaphragmatic hernias (classic EDS),
37. MOLECULAR BASE
Deficiency of the enzyme lysyl hydroxylase.
Decreased hydroxylation of lysyl residues in
types I and III collagen interferes with the
normal cross-links among collagen molecules.
38. Diseases Caused by Mutations in Receptor
Familial Hypercholesterolemia
39. FAMILIAL
HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA
is among the most common mendelian disorders; the
frequency of heterozygotes is one in 500 in the
general population.
It is caused by a mutation in the gene that specifies
the receptor for LDL, the form in which 70% of total
plasma cholesterol is transported.
Dietary triglycerides and cholesterol are incorporated
into chylomicrons in the intestinal mucosa, which
drain via the gut lymphatics into the blood.
These chylomicrons are hydrolyzed by an endothelial
lipoprotein lipase in the capillaries of muscle and fat.
The chylomicron remnants, rich in cholesterol, are
then delivered to the liver
40.
41. Some of the cholesterol enters the metabolic pool
and some is excreted as free cholesterol or bile
acids into the biliary tract.
The endogenous synthesis of cholesterol and LDL
begins in the liver
The first step in the synthesis of LDL is the
secretion of triglyceride-rich very-low-density
lipoprotein (VLDL) by the liver into the blood.
In the capillaries of adipose tissue and muscle,
the VLDL particle undergoes lipolysis and is
converted to intermediate-density lipoprotein
(IDL).
42.
43. In familial hypercholesterolemia, mutations in
the LDL receptor gene impair the intracellular
transport and catabolism of LDL, resulting in
accumulation of LDL cholesterol in the plasma.
In addition, the absence of LDL receptors on liver
cells also impairs the transport of IDL into the
liver, and hence a greater proportion of plasma
IDL is converted into LDL.
44. Thus, patients with familial
hypercholesterolemia develop excessive levels of
serum cholesterol as a result of the combined
effects of reduced catabolism and excessive
biosynthesis
In the presence of such hypercholesterolemia,
there is a marked increase of cholesterol traffic
into the monocyte macrophages and vascular
walls via the scavenger receptor.
This accounts for the appearance of skin
xanthomas and premature atherosclerosis
45. Diseases Caused by Mutations in Enzyme
Proteins
Phenylketonuria
46. affects 1 in 12,000 live-born Caucasian infants.
Homozygotes with this autosomal recessive
disorder classically have a severe lack of
phenylalanine hydroxylase, leading to
hyperphenylalaninemia and PKU.
Affected infants are normal at birth but within a
few weeks develop a rising plasma phenylalanine
level, which in some way impairs brain
development.
Usually by 6 months of life severe mental
retardation becomes all too evident;
fewer than 4% of untreated phenylketonuric
children have IQs greater than 50 or 60..
47. About one-third of these children are never able
to walk, and two-thirds cannot talk.
Seizures, other neurologic abnormalities,
decreased pigmentation of hair and skin, and
eczema often accompany the mental retardation
in untreated children.
Hyperphenylalaninemia and the resultant
mental retardation can be avoided by restriction
of phenylalanine intake early in life.
Hence, several screening procedures are
routinely performed to detect PKU in the
immediate postnatal period
48.
49. Many female PKU patients, treated with diet
early in life, reach childbearing age and are
clinically normal.
Most of them have marked
hyperphenylalaninemia, because dietary
treatment is discontinued after they reach
adulthood.
Children born to such women are profoundly
mentally retarded and have multiple congenital
anomalies, even though the infants themselves
are heterozygotes.
50. This syndrome, termed maternal PKU, results
from the teratogenic effects of phenylalanine that
crosses the placenta and affects the developing
fetus.
Hence, it is imperative that maternal
phenylalanine levels be lowered by dietary
means before conception.
Maternal hyperphenylalaninemia also increases
the risk of spontaneous abortions.
51. The biochemical abnormality in PKU is an
inability to convert phenylalanine into tyrosine.
In normal children, less than 50% of the dietary
intake of phenylalanine is necessary for protein
synthesis.
The remainder is converted to tyrosine by the
phenylalanine hydroxylase system
When phenylalanine metabolism is blocked
because of a lack of phenylalanine hydroxylase,
minor shunt pathways come into play, yielding
several intermediates that are excreted in large
amounts in the urine and in the sweat.
52. These impart a strong musty or mousy odor to
affected infants.
It is believed that excess phenylalanine or its
metabolites contribute to the brain damage in
PKU.
Concomitant lack of tyrosine ,a precursor of
melanin, is responsible for the light color of hair
and skin
53. GALACTOSEMIA
is an autosomal recessive disorder of galactose
metabolism that affects one in 30,000 live-born
infants.
Normally, lactase splits lactose, the major
carbohydrate of mammalian milk, into glucose and
galactose in the intestinal microvilli.
Galactose is then converted to glucose in several
steps, in one of which the enzyme galactose-1-
phosphate uridyltransferase is required. Lack of this
enzyme is responsible for galactosemia.
As a result of this lack of transferase, galactose 1-
phosphate and other metabolites, including galactitol,
accumulate in many tissues, including the liver,
spleen, lens of the eye, kidney, and cerebral cortex.
54. The liver, eyes, and brain bear the brunt of the
damage.
The early-developing hepatomegaly is due largely
to fatty change,
Opacification of the lens (cataracts) develops,
probably because the lens absorbs water and
swells as galactitol, produced by alternative
metabolic pathways, accumulates and increases
its tonicity.
Nonspecific alterations appear in the central
nervous system (CNS), including loss of nerve
cells, gliosis, and edema.
55.
56. Almost from birth, these infants fail to thrive.
Vomiting and diarrhea appear within a few days of
milk ingestion.
Jaundice and hepatomegaly usually become evident
during the first week of life.
Accumulation of galactose and galactose 1-phosphate
in the kidney impairs amino acid transport, resulting
in aminoaciduria.
There is an increased frequency of fulminant
Escherichia coli septicemia.
Without appropriate dietary therapy, long-term
complications such as cataracts, speech defects,
neurologic deficits, and ovarian failure may occur in
older children and adults.
57. Most of the clinical and morphologic changes can
be prevented by early removal of galactose from
the diet for at least the first 2 years of life.
The diagnosis is established by assay of the
transferase in leukocytes and erythrocytes.
Antenatal diagnosis is possible by enzyme assays
or DNA-based testing of cultured amniocytes or
chorionic villi.
58. ENZYME
DEFICIENCIES
BY
FAR, THE LARGEST
KNOWN CATEGORY
SUBSTRATE BUILDUP
PRODUCT LACK
SUBSTRATE could be
HARMFUL
LYSOSOMAL STORAGE
DISEASES comprise MOST
of them
60. LYSOSOMAL STORAGE DISEASES
Lysosomes contain a variety of hydrolytic
enzymes that are involved in the breakdown of
complex substrates, such as sphingolipids and
mucopolysaccharides, into soluble end products.
These large molecules may be derived from the
turnover of intracellular organelles that enter the
lysosomes by autophagocytosis, or they may be
acquired from outside the cells by phagocytosis.
61. With an inherited lack of a lysosomal enzyme,
catabolism of its substrate remains incomplete,
leading to accumulation of the partially degraded
insoluble metabolites within the lysosomes
They are divided into broad categories based on
the biochemical nature of the substrates and the
accumulated metabolites, but a more mechanistic
classification is based on the underlying
molecular defect
63. TAY-SACHS DISEASE (GM2
GANGLIOSIDOSIS)
Gangliosidoses are characterized by
accumulation of gangliosides, principally in the
brain, as a result of a deficiency of a catabolic
lysosomal enzyme.
Depending on the ganglioside involved, these
disorders are subclassified into
G and G categories.
M1 M2
Tay-Sachs disease is characterized by a mutation
in and consequent deficiency of the α subunit of
the enzyme hexosaminidase A, which is
necessary for the degradation of GM2.
64. most affect protein folding or intracellular
transport.
The brain is principally affected, because it is
most involved in ganglioside metabolism.
The storage of G occurs within neurons, axon
M2
cylinders of nerves, and glial cells throughout the
CNS.
Affected cells appear swollen, possibly foamy
Electron microscopy reveals a whorled
configuration within lysosomes
These anatomic changes are found throughout
the CNS (including the spinal cord), peripheral
nerves, and autonomic nervous system
65. infants appear normal at birth,
but motor weakness begins at 3 to 6 months of
age,
followed by mental retardation, blindness, and
severe neurologic dysfunctions.
Death occurs within 2 or 3 years
66. SPHINGOLIPIDOSES
• MANY types, Tay-Sachs most often referred to
– GANGLIOSIDES are ACCUMULATED
– Ashkenazi Jews (1/30 are carriers)
– CNS neurons a site of accumulation
– CHERRY RED spot in Macula
67. NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE, TYPES A
AND B
characterized by a primary deficiency of acid
sphingomyelinase and the resultant
accumulation of sphingomyelin.
In type A, characterized by a severe deficiency of
sphingomyelinase, the breakdown of
sphingomyelin into ceramide and
phosphorylcholine is impaired, and excess
sphingomyelin accumulates in all phagocytic
cells and in the neurons..
68. The macrophages become stuffed with droplets or
particles of the complex lipid, imparting a fine
vacuolation or foaminess to the cytoplasm
Because of their high content of phagocytic cells,
the organs most severely affected are the spleen,
liver, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and lungs
69. The splenic enlargement may be striking.
CNS:
The affected neurons are enlarged and
vacuolated as a result of the storage of lipids.
This variant manifests itself in infancy with
massive visceromegaly and severe neurologic
deterioration.
Death usually occurs within the first 3 years of
life.
70. patients with the type B variant have
organomegaly but no neurologic symptoms.
Niemann-Pick Disease Type C
primary defect in lipid transport.
Affected cells accumulate cholesterol as well as
gangliosides such as GM1 and GM2.
NPC is clinically marked by ataxia, vertical
supranuclear gaze palsy, dystonia, dysarthria,
and psychomotor regression
71. NIEMANN-PICK
• TYPES A, B, C
• SPHINGOMYELIN BUILDUP
• Sphingomyelinase (ASM), is the missing enzyme
• MASSIVE SPLENOMEGALY
• ALSO in ASHKANAZI JEWS
• OFTEN FATAL in EARLY LIFE, CNS,
ORGANOMEGALY
72. GAUCHER DISEASE
This disease results from mutation in the gene
that encodes glucosylceramidase.
deficient activity of a glucosylceramidase that
normally cleaves the glucose residue from
ceramide.
This leads to an accumulation of
glucosylceramide in the mononuclear phagocytic
cells and their transformation into so-called
Gaucher cells.
Normally the glycolipids derived from the
breakdown of senescent blood cells, particularly
erythrocytes, are sequentially degraded.
73. In Gaucher disease, the degradation stops at the
level of glucosylceramides, which, in transit
through the blood as macromolecules, are
engulfed by the phagocytic cells of the body,
especially in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
These phagocytes (Gaucher cells) become
enlarged, with some becoming as large as 100
μm, because of the accumulation of distended
lysosomes, and develop a pathognomonic
cytoplasmic appearance characterized as
"wrinkled tissue paper"
74. High levels of macrophage-derived cytokines,
such as interleukins (IL-2, IL-6) and tumor
necrosis factor (TNF) are found in affected
tissues.
75.
76. type I :-- the chronic non-neuronopathic form,
accounts for 99% of cases of Gaucher disease.
It is characterized by clinical or radiographic
bone involvement (osteopenia, focal lytic lesions,
and osteonecrosis) in 70% to 100% of cases.
Additional features are hepatosplenomegaly and
the absence of CNS involvement.
The spleen often enlarges massively, filling the
entire abdomen.
77. Gaucher cells are found in the liver, spleen,
lymph nodes, and bone marrow.
Marrow replacement and cortical erosion may
produce radiographically visible skeletal lesions,
as well as a reduction in the formed elements of
blood.
Bone changes are believed to be caused by
macrophage-derived cytokines
78. Types II and III variants are characterized by
neurologic signs and symptoms.
In type II, the symptoms start before 2 years of
age and are more severe, whereas in type III, the
symptoms appear later and are milder.
Although the liver and spleen are also involved,
the clinical features are dominated by neurologic
disturbances.
In addition to these, there is a perinatal-lethal
form characterized by hepatosplenomegaly, skin
lesions, and non-immune hydrops . In the so-
called cardiovascular form, there is involvement
and calcification of mitral and aortic valves.
79. MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSES (MPSS)
characterized by defective degradation (and
therefore excessive storage) of
mucopolysaccharides in various tissues.
Recall that mucopolysaccharides form a part of
ground substance and are synthesized by
connective tissue fibroblasts.
Most of the mucopolysaccharide is secreted into
the ground substance, but a certain fraction is
degraded within lysosomes.
80. Several enzymes are involved in this catabolic
pathway; it is the lack of these enzymes that
leads to accumulation of mucopolysaccharides
within the lysosomes.
Several clinical variants of MPS, classified
numerically from MPS I to MPS VII, have been
described, each resulting from the deficiency of
one specific enzyme.
81. The mucopolysaccharides that accumulate within
the tissues include
dermatan sulfate,
heparan sulfate,
keratan sulfate,
chondroitin sulfate
82. Most are associated with coarse facial features,
clouding of the cornea, joint stiffness, and mental
retardation.
Urinary excretion of the accumulated
mucopolysaccharides is often increased.
All of these disorders except one are inherited as
autosomal recessive conditions; the exception,
Hunter syndrome, is an X-linked recessive
disease.
83.
84. Mucopolysaccharidosis type I caused by a
deficiency of α-L-iduronidase.
In Hurler syndrome, affected children have a life
expectancy of 6 to 10 years.
they develop coarse facial features associated
with skeletal deformities.
Death is often due to cardiac complications
resulting from the formation of raised endothelial
and endocardial lesions by the deposition of
mucopolysaccharides in the coronary arteries and
heart valves.
85. type II, or Hunter syndrome, (X-linked),
results from a deficiency of L-iduronate sulfatase.
86. GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASES
(GLYCOGENOSES)
An inherited deficiency of any one of the enzymes
involved in glycogen synthesis or degradation can
result in excessive accumulation of glycogen or
some abnormal form of glycogen in various
tissues.
Regardless of the tissue or cells affected, the
glycogen is most often stored within the
cytoplasm, or sometimes within nuclei.
Most glycogenoses are inherited as autosomal
recessive diseases, as is common with "missing
enzyme" syndromes.
87. Hepatic type.
Liver contains several enzymes that synthesize
glycogen for storage and also break it down into
free glucose.
Hence, a deficiency of the hepatic enzymes
involved in glycogen metabolism is associated
with two major clinical effects:
enlargement of the liver due to storage of glycogen
and hypoglycemia due to a failure of glucose
production
88. Von Gierke disease (type I glycogenosis),
resulting from a lack of glucose-6-phosphatase, is
the most important example of the hepatic form
of glycogenosis
89. Myopathic type.
In striated muscle, glycogen is an important
source of energy.
When enzymes that are involved in glycolysis are
deficient, glycogen storage occurs in muscles and
there is an associated muscle weakness due to
impaired energy production.
Typically, the myopathic forms of glycogen
storage diseases are marked by muscle cramps
after exercise, myoglobinuria, and failure of
exercise to induce an elevation in blood lactate
levels because of a block in glycolysis
90. McArdle disease (type V glycogenosis), resulting
from a deficiency of muscle phosphorylase, is the
prototype of myopathic glycogenoses.
Type II glycogenosis (Pompe disease) is caused by
a deficiency of lysosomal acid maltase and so is
associated with deposition of glycogen in
virtually every organ, but cardiomegaly is most
prominent.
Brancher glycogenosis (type IV) is caused by
deposition of an abnormal form of glycogen, with
detrimental effects on the liver, heart, and
91. Accumulation of dermatan sulfate and heparan
sulfate is seen in cells of the mononuclear
phagocyte system, in fibroblasts, and within
endothelium and smooth muscle cells of the
vascular wall.
The affected cells are swollen and have clear
cytoplasm, resulting from the accumulation of
material positive for periodic acid-Schiff stain
within engorged, vacuolated lysosomes.
Lysosomal inclusions are also found in neurons,
accounting for the mental retardation
92. MULTIFACTORIAL
INHERITANCE
Multi-”FACTORIAL”, not just multi-GENIC
“SOIL” theory
Common phenotypic expressions governed by
“multifactorial” inheritance
Hair color
Eye color
Skin color
Height
Intelligence
Diabetes, type II
93. FEATURES OF
MULTIFACTORIAL
INHERITANCE
Expression determined by NUMBER of genes
Overall 5% chance of 1st degree relatives having it
Identical twins >>>5%, but WAY less than 100%
This 5% is increased if more children have it
Expression of CONTINUOUS traits (e.g.,
height) vs. DISCONTINUOUS traits (e.g., diabetes)
95. KARYOTYPING
Defined as the study of
CHROMOSOMES
46 = (22x2) + X + Y
Conventional notation is “46,XY” or
“46,XX”
G(iemsa)-banding, 500 bands per
haploid recognizable
Short (“p”-etit) arm = p, other (long)
arm = q
96.
97. MORE
KARYOTYPING INFO
A,B,C,D,E,F,G depends on chromosome length
A longest
G shortest
Groups within these letters depend on the p/q ratio
ARMREGIONBANDSub-
BAND, numbering from the centromere
progressing distad
98.
99. GREATLY ENHANCES G-
BANDING
Fluorescent In-
Situ Hybridization
Uses fluorescent labelled
DNA fragments, ~10,000
base pairs, to bind (or
not bind) to its
complement
107. TRISOMY-21
Most trisomies (monosomies, aneuploidy) are from
maternal non-disjunction
(non-disjunction or anaphase lag are BOTH possible)
#1 cause of mental
retardation
Maternal age related
Congenital Heart Defects, risk for acute leukemias, GI
atresias
Most LOVABLE of all God’s children
108.
109. CHROMOSOME 22Q11.2
DELETION SYNDROME
Because of a DELETION, this
cannot be detected by standard
karyotyping and needs FISH
Cardiac defects, DiGeorge
syndrome, velocardiofacial,
CATCH*
110.
111. SEX CHROMOSOME
DISORDERS
Problems related to sexual development
and fertility
Discovered at time of puberty
Retardation related to the number of X
chromosomes
If you have at least ONE “Y” chromosome,
you are male
112. KLINEFELTER (XXY, XXXY,
ETC.)
Hypogonadism found at
puberty
#1 cause of male
infertility
NO retardation unless more
X’s
47, XXY 82% of the time
L----O----N----G legs, atrophic
testes, small penis
113.
114. TURNER (XO)
45,X is the “proper” designation
Mosaics common
Often, the WHOLE chromosome is
not missing, but just part
NECK “WEBBING”
EDEMA of HAND DORSUM
CONGENITAL HEART DEFECTS
most FEARED
115.
116. HERMAPHRODITES
GENETIC SEX is determined by the
PRESENCE or ABSENCE of a “Y”
chromosome, but there is also, GONADAL
(phenotypic), and DUCTAL sex
TRUE HERMAPHRODITE: OVARIES AND
TESTES, often on opposite sides (VERY RARE)
PSEUDO-HERMAPHRODITE:
MALE:TESTES with female characteristics (Y-)
FEMALE: OVARIES with male characteristics (XX)
117. SINGLE GENE, NON-
MENDELIAN
Triplet repeats
Fragile X (CGG)
Others: ataxias, myotonic dystrophy
Mitochondrial Mutations:
(maternal)
(LEBER HEREDITARY OPTIC
NEUROPATHY)
Genomic “IMPRINTING”: (Inactivation
of maternal or paternal allele, contradicts
Mendel)
Gonadal “MOSAICISM”: (only gametes
have mutated cells)
118. MOLECULAR DX BY DNA PROBES
BIRTH DEFECTS, PRE- or
POST- NATAL
TUMOR CELLS
CLASSIFICATIONS of TUMORS
IDENTIFICATION of
PATHOGENS
DONOR COMPATIBILITY
PATERNITY
FORENSIC
120. TRIPLET-REPEAT MUTATIONS:
FRAGILE X SYNDROME
Fragile X syndrome is the prototype of diseases
in which the mutation is characterized by a long
repeating sequence of 3 nucleotides.
Other examples of diseases associated with
trinucleotide repeat mutations include
Huntington disease and myotonic dystrophy.
amplification of specific sets of 3 nucleotides
within the gene disrupts its function
121. Fragile X syndrome is characterized by mental
retardation and an abnormality in the X
chromosome.
It is one of the most common causes of familial
mental retardation.
Clinically affected males have moderate to severe
mental retardation.
They express a characteristic physical phenotype
that includes a long face with a large mandible,
large everted ears, and large testicles (macro-
orchidism).
122. Fragile X syndrome results from a mutation in
the FMR1 gene, which maps to Xq27.3. Like all
X-linked recessive disorders, this disease affects
males
123. GENOMIC IMPRINTING: PRADER-
WILLI AND ANGELMAN
SYNDROMES
All humans inherit two copies of each gene,
carried on homologous maternal and paternal
chromosomes.
genomic imprinting
certain genes are differentially "inactivated"
during paternal and maternal gametogenesis.
Thus, maternal imprinting refers to
transcriptional silencing of the maternal allele,
whereas paternal imprinting implies that the
paternal allele is inactivated.
Imprinting occurs in ovum or sperm and is then
stably transmitted to all somatic cells derived
from the zygote
125. PRADER-WILLI SYNDROME
characterized by mental retardation, short
stature, hypotonia, obesity, small hands and feet,
and hypogonadism.
In 60% to 75% of cases, an interstitial deletion of
band q12 in the long arm of chromosome 15 can
be detected.
It is striking that in all cases the deletion affects
the paternally derived chromosome 15.
.
126. Angelman syndrome are born with a deletion of
the same chromosomal region derived from their
mothers
127. Patients with Angelman syndrome are also
mentally retarded, but in addition they present
with ataxic gait, seizures, and inappropriate
laughter.
Because of the laughter and ataxia, this
syndrome is also called the happy puppet
syndrome.
Editor's Notes
The chapter is organized in order of increasing size of the chromosomal molecular anatomic defect.
Classical ideal concept of a point mutation, which also happens to be the REAL defect in sickle cell anemia.
Heterozygous ~ “less aggressive”? Single trouble?
NOT to memorize, but be familiar with.
Homozygous ~ “more aggressive”? Double trouble? This SHOULD make sense too?
Most of the classical “genetic” diseases are autosomal RECESSIVE, rather than autosomal DOMINANT, by far. NOT to memorize, but be familiar with.
You should know reflexively that ALL these diseases are sex linked. We will soon see a map of the X-chromosome.
The concept is extremely simple: If an enzyme cannot convert A B, then A builds up abnormally.
You will probably never see any of these disorders personally, but nevertheless, you should have familiarity with the process behind each disease. You should already know from biochemistry what these substances are already.
Sphingolipids are a class of lipids containing a backbone of sphingoid bases , a set of aliphatic amino alcohols that includes sphingosine . “Sphingo” comes from Sphinx, because of their original enigmatic nature! Tay-Sachs disease (abbreviated TSD , also known as GM2 gangliosidosis or Hexosaminidase A deficiency ) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder . In its most common variant known as infantile Tay-Sachs disease it presents with a relentless deterioration of mental and physical abilities which commences at 6 months of age and usually results in death by the age of four.
Sphingomyelin (SPH), (sphin-go-my-e-lin (sfi ng gōˈmīəlin)), is a type of sphingolipid found in animal cell membranes , especially in the membranous myelin sheath which surrounds some nerve cell axons . It usually consists of phosphorylcholine and ceramide . In humans SPH represents ~85% of all sphingolipids.
Cerebrosides are glycosphingolipids which are important components in animal muscle and nerve cell membranes . Myelin is the most well known cerebroside. Glucocerebroside (also called glucosylceramide ) is any of the cerebrosides in which the monosaccharide head group is glucose . Gaucher's disease is the most common of the lysosomal storage diseases . It is caused by a hereditary deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase (also known as acid β-glucosidase). The enzyme acts on a fatty substance glucocerebroside (also known as glucosylceramide ). When the enzyme is defective, the substance accumulates, particularly in cells of the mononuclear cell lineage.
We are now moving the discussion up from ONE gene MULTI-genes Parts of chromosomes WHOLE chromosomes.
If a disease or condition is scalable, rather than on or off, it is probably multigenic, or multifactorial, just part of the spectrum of HOMO-zygous diseases being HOMO-geneous, and HETERO-zygous diseases being VARIABLE.
You might imagine that the list of “multifactorial” disorders blends in with the entire list of human diseases. Hence are “all” diseases “genetic”? This is almost an UNFAIR list, therefore.
The Giemsa stain, named after Gustav Giemsa, is a VERY common stain in pathology, often used to identify organisms in cells such as malaria and helicobacter, and MANY other things such as parts of cells and connective tissue. It is a VERY simple stain to do.
The “official” notation for the normal male pattern is: “46, XY”
Is it surprising that the “regions” of the “X” chromosome are the same as the list of sex-linked diseases? Ans: NO Have you see this list before? Ans: YES
Awesome research technique, used often in everyday pathology too, fluorescently “labels” pieces of DNA which connect to the corresponding strand during DNA replication. In situ hybridization (ISH) is a type of hybridization that uses a labeled complementary DNA or RNA strand (i.e., probe ) to localize a specific DNA or RNA sequence in a portion or section of tissue ( in situ )
FISH is POWERFULLY more sensitive, accurate, and specific, than G-banding.
Common applications for FISH. Examples of diseases that are diagnosed using FISH include Prader-Willi syndrome , Angelman syndrome , 22q13 deletion syndrome , chronic myelogenous leukemia , acute lymphoblastic leukemia ,Cri-du-chat, Velocardiofacial syndrome, and Down syndrome, but, IN GENERAL, diseases with partial or whole chromosome abnormalities.
This technique is used to identify structural chromosome aberrations in cancer cells and other disease conditions when Giemsa banding or other techniques are not accurate enough. Each chromosome has a different color, sort of, although some of this is digital false color techniques, much in the same way, electron microscopy can generate “false” colors.
Just about everything you can imagine geometrically which can happen to that piece of string------does!
Maternal “nondisjunction” is the classical explanation of Trisomy 21.
You do not have to see many trisomy-21 patients until you can recognize them very quickly and easily. There is NO way you can learn from a textbook how to recognize these patients quickly. If you KNOW one or are RELATED to one, or loved one, you NEVER fail to recognize the face without having to describe the details, i.e., pattern-recognition.
22q11.2 deletion syndrome , also known as DiGeorge Syndrome, Velo(soft palate)Cardio(heart)Facial(face) Syndrome, conotruncal anomaly face syndrome, Congenital Thymic Aplasia, Strong Syndrome, Thymic hypoplasia, and DiGeorge anomaly. It also has the mnemonic C-A-T-C-H, for : C ardiac Abnormality (especially Fallot's Tetralogy) A bnormal facies T hymic aplasia C left palate H ypocalcemia
Cute smiles?
Sexuality can be defined in many ways, having at least ONE “Y” chromosome is a good definition of being male.
“ STREAK” ovaries are the rule, neck webbing and cardiac structural abnormalities are also at the top of the list.
“ Pseudo”-hermaphrodites are MUCH more common that TRUE hermaphrodites.
The fragile X syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by mutation of the FMR1 gene on the X chromosome. Mutation at that site is found in 1 out of about every 2000 males and 1 out of about every 259 females. (Incidence of the disease itself is about 1 in every 4000 females.) Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) or Leber optic atrophy is a mitochondrially inherited (mother to all offspring) degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons that leads to an acute or subacute loss of central vision; this affects predominantly young adult males. However, LHON is only transmitted through the mother as it is primarily due to mutations in the mitochondrial (not nuclear) genome and only the egg contributes mitochondria to the embryo. Genomic imprinting is a genetic phenomenon by which certain genes are expressed in a parent-of-origin-specific manner.
My #1 peeve, is people who identify pathology with forensic pathology. It shows they have been watching WAY too much TV.