This document provides an overview of water repellency testing. It discusses why water repellency testing is important for performance textiles and clothing. It then describes the role of water repellency in a layered system and gives a general overview of the ISO 9865 Bundesmann test. The document explains how water repellency is measured in this test and issues that can impact test results. It concludes by discussing a more sustainable approach to water repellency testing using recirculated water.
1) Single jersey is a plain weft knitted fabric with loops on one side and back loops on the other.
2) It is produced using a plain circular knitting machine with one set of latch needles.
3) Single jersey fabric is lightweight, comfortable, and inexpensive to produce, making it widely used around the world for apparel and other products.
The document provides information about circular knitting machines. It defines knitting as transforming yarn into interlocking loops. Circular knitting creates seamless tubes using circular needles or machines. Machine parts include the frame, power supply, yarn feeding system, and quality control components. Circular knitting machines are used to produce fabrics for various garments and other materials. Modern machines feature computer controls to monitor functions like speed and stops.
This document summarizes the differences between feeder stripes, engineering stripes, and auto stripes in knitted fabrics. It explains that:
Feeder stripes are small repeating patterns less than 1.9 inches that can be produced on most circular knitting machines at low cost. Engineering stripes are large non-repeating patterns across the whole garment produced using special finger devices that increase costs. Auto stripes are repeating patterns greater than 1.9 inches that require computers and special finger machines, resulting in higher costs than feeder stripes. The document also discusses when auto stripes are needed over feeder stripes and the invention of multi-feeder machines to reduce auto stripe machine use.
This document discusses different types of shuttleless looms. It classifies shuttleless looms into three categories: partially guided solid carrier looms like projectile looms; fully guided solid carrier looms like rapier looms; and fluid carrier looms like air jet and water jet looms. Projectile looms use small projectiles to carry the weft yarn through the shed, rapier looms use fork-like rapiers, and fluid carrier looms use compressed air or water to propel the weft yarn. Shuttleless looms are faster, quieter, and produce better fabric quality than shuttle looms.
This document discusses jammed fabric structures and provides mathematical models to predict their properties. A jammed fabric is one where the warp and weft yarns are in intimate contact with no mobility between yarns. Pierce's model and the racetrack model are presented to calculate thread spacing, fabric cover, and crimp based on yarn diameters. A truly square jammed fabric has equal warp and weft spacing, crimp, and angles. Such a fabric has 20.9% crimp and cover factors of 16.2. Jammed fabrics are closely woven and used for waterproof, windproof and bulletproof applications.
Rib structure is the second family of knit structures where wales of face stitches and back stitches are knitted alternatively on each side of the fabric. Rib fabrics are produced on machines with two sets of offset needles. The 1x1 rib structure has perfectly balanced stitches with high elastic recovery in the width direction. The 2x2 rib structure has 2 technical face loops and 2 back loops per repeat, making it popular for cuffs and waistbands. Rib fabrics have the same appearance on both sides with moderate lengthwise and very high widthwise extensibility, thickness, and no tendency to curl.
This document provides information about garment dyeing machines. It begins by explaining that garment dyeing involves dyeing fully fashioned garments after manufacturing, as opposed to using pre-dyed fabrics. It then discusses different types of machines used for garment dyeing, including paddle machines, rotary drum machines, tumbler machines, toroid machines, and the Gyrobox. The document provides details on the features and operating principles of these different machine types. It also includes images and specifications for specific garment dyeing machines from STEFAB.
This document discusses the objectives, operating principles, and components of a draw frame used in yarn production. The main objectives of a draw frame are equalizing fiber distribution, parallelizing fibers, blending fibers, and removing dust. It operates by drafting multiple sliver feeds together using roller pairs with differential speeds. Key components discussed include the creel, drafting arrangement, dust removal, coiling, and monitoring/auto-leveling systems.
1) Single jersey is a plain weft knitted fabric with loops on one side and back loops on the other.
2) It is produced using a plain circular knitting machine with one set of latch needles.
3) Single jersey fabric is lightweight, comfortable, and inexpensive to produce, making it widely used around the world for apparel and other products.
The document provides information about circular knitting machines. It defines knitting as transforming yarn into interlocking loops. Circular knitting creates seamless tubes using circular needles or machines. Machine parts include the frame, power supply, yarn feeding system, and quality control components. Circular knitting machines are used to produce fabrics for various garments and other materials. Modern machines feature computer controls to monitor functions like speed and stops.
This document summarizes the differences between feeder stripes, engineering stripes, and auto stripes in knitted fabrics. It explains that:
Feeder stripes are small repeating patterns less than 1.9 inches that can be produced on most circular knitting machines at low cost. Engineering stripes are large non-repeating patterns across the whole garment produced using special finger devices that increase costs. Auto stripes are repeating patterns greater than 1.9 inches that require computers and special finger machines, resulting in higher costs than feeder stripes. The document also discusses when auto stripes are needed over feeder stripes and the invention of multi-feeder machines to reduce auto stripe machine use.
This document discusses different types of shuttleless looms. It classifies shuttleless looms into three categories: partially guided solid carrier looms like projectile looms; fully guided solid carrier looms like rapier looms; and fluid carrier looms like air jet and water jet looms. Projectile looms use small projectiles to carry the weft yarn through the shed, rapier looms use fork-like rapiers, and fluid carrier looms use compressed air or water to propel the weft yarn. Shuttleless looms are faster, quieter, and produce better fabric quality than shuttle looms.
This document discusses jammed fabric structures and provides mathematical models to predict their properties. A jammed fabric is one where the warp and weft yarns are in intimate contact with no mobility between yarns. Pierce's model and the racetrack model are presented to calculate thread spacing, fabric cover, and crimp based on yarn diameters. A truly square jammed fabric has equal warp and weft spacing, crimp, and angles. Such a fabric has 20.9% crimp and cover factors of 16.2. Jammed fabrics are closely woven and used for waterproof, windproof and bulletproof applications.
Rib structure is the second family of knit structures where wales of face stitches and back stitches are knitted alternatively on each side of the fabric. Rib fabrics are produced on machines with two sets of offset needles. The 1x1 rib structure has perfectly balanced stitches with high elastic recovery in the width direction. The 2x2 rib structure has 2 technical face loops and 2 back loops per repeat, making it popular for cuffs and waistbands. Rib fabrics have the same appearance on both sides with moderate lengthwise and very high widthwise extensibility, thickness, and no tendency to curl.
This document provides information about garment dyeing machines. It begins by explaining that garment dyeing involves dyeing fully fashioned garments after manufacturing, as opposed to using pre-dyed fabrics. It then discusses different types of machines used for garment dyeing, including paddle machines, rotary drum machines, tumbler machines, toroid machines, and the Gyrobox. The document provides details on the features and operating principles of these different machine types. It also includes images and specifications for specific garment dyeing machines from STEFAB.
This document discusses the objectives, operating principles, and components of a draw frame used in yarn production. The main objectives of a draw frame are equalizing fiber distribution, parallelizing fibers, blending fibers, and removing dust. It operates by drafting multiple sliver feeds together using roller pairs with differential speeds. Key components discussed include the creel, drafting arrangement, dust removal, coiling, and monitoring/auto-leveling systems.
This document compares and contrasts different types of soft flow dyeing machines, including their conventional and innovative aspects. It discusses the Fong's jet dyeing machine, Then-Airflow AFA machine, and Thies jet dyeing machine. Key details provided include their capacities from 50-3000kg per batch, liquor ratios from 1:3 to 1:5, maximum working temperatures of 140°C, and special features like rinsing systems, fabric transport mechanisms, and plaiting systems. The conclusion states that innovation is ongoing and more new ideas are still needed in this field.
An investigation on the inspection of grey & finished knit fabric in wet proc...Md. Mazadul Hasan Shishir
This document discusses fabric inspection processes at Aman Tex Ltd, a knit fabric dyeing and garment manufacturing company in Bangladesh. It outlines the company's operations and describes their grey fabric and finished fabric inspection procedures. For grey fabric, common defects like needle marks, holes, and dropped stitches are defined. For finished fabric, defects from dyeing and finishing like uneven dyeing, dye spots, and crease marks are explained. The aims of inspection are to ensure quality, reduce costs from defects, and improve production efficiency. Inspection standards like the four point system used by Aman Tex are presented.
The document provides details on maintenance done on a warping machine in a weaving mill. It discusses the main components of a warping machine - the creel and headstock. The creel holds supply packages and comes in different types like single end, magazine and traveling creels. The headstock controls the width and speed of the warp beam. Common problems with warping machines like guide fractures, defective stop motions, gear issues and motor failures are outlined along with their causes and solutions. Different types of warping like pattern and beam warping are also described. The presentation aims to help understand warping machine components and maintenance to improve machine operation in weaving mills.
Dref system is Dref 3000
which was introduced in
2003.It has higher
production capacity than
Dref 2000.
This document discusses friction spinning, also known as Dref spinning. It is a textile technology suitable for spinning coarse yarn counts and technical core-wrapped yarns. Dref yarns have low tensile strength, making them suitable for blankets, mops, and filters. The technology was developed in 1975 and allows yarns like rayon and Kevlar to be spun. Friction spinning uses two friction surfaces to roll fibers into yarn with very little tension applied. This makes it more productive than other spinning methods like ring and rotor spinning. Developments
A beam dyeing machine dyes yarns or fabrics that have been wound onto a special beam with perforated holes. Dye is forced through the holes into the yarn/fabric from inside to outside and vice versa for an even dyeing result without dimensional changes or mechanical forces. Some brands of beam dyeing machines are Tex-Fab, Bhagyarekha, Apexjet, Devkrut, Raj, and Devrekha. The working principle involves winding fabric onto a perforated beam, inserting it into a pressurized dyeing vessel, circulating dye under temperature and pressure, and removing the fabric. Beam dyeing allows for controlled tension and dimensions with no mechanical action on the fabric.
You can find the diffences between mechanical and electronical dobby mechanisms in principle in this presentation.
Also , you can reach the details of dobby mechanisms type like as of single , double and negative dobby systems.
The document discusses the carding process which involves opening, cleaning and assembling fibers into a sliver through different sections of a carding machine like feed, licker-in, cylinder and doffer. It explains the objectives, necessities and zones of carding along with details of components like types of clothing, their functioning and settings that are important for quality carding. The document also covers developments in carding technology and types of drives used in modern carding machines.
The document describes a modern blowroom line consisting of machines from Rieter, including a bale opener, pre-cleaner, homogeneous mixer, precision blender, storage and feeding machine, condenser, card, and sliver coiler. It provides details on the functions of the Rieter bale opener, pre-cleaner, mixer, blender, storage machine, and condenser and card, which work together to open, clean, blend, feed, and condense cotton fibers into sliver in the blowroom process.
The document discusses the key processes that take place in the blowroom of a yarn production facility. These include opening bales of fiber, cleaning the fiber through pre-cleaning and fine cleaning, removing dust, blending different fiber types, and evenly feeding the prepared fiber to the carding process. The goal of blowroom processes is to prepare fibers for subsequent processing while minimizing fiber loss and maintaining fiber quality.
The document discusses the key components and processes of a speed frame machine. It describes the functions of creeling, drafting, twisting, building, and winding processes to attenuate sliver and produce roving. The drafting system and its roller configuration is explained. Common issues like irregular roving, breakages, and machine faults are also summarized.
1) A textile is a woven fabric made by interlacing warp and weft threads. Textiles now also refer to fibers, yarns and products made from them.
2) Weaving produces fabric by intersecting the warp (lengthwise) and weft (crosswise) threads. Yarn preparation involves winding yarn onto packages to facilitate weaving and removing faults.
3) Different types of fabrics include woven, knitted, non-woven and special fabrics. Proper yarn preparation and tension are important to produce good quality fabric during weaving.
Stitch bonding is a hybrid textile manufacturing technique that combines elements of nonwoven, sewing, and knitting processes. It involves locking layers of cross-laid fibers or nonwoven fabrics into a warp knit structure using pointed needles that penetrate the layers and insert stitching yarn. There are several stitch bonding systems that differ in whether they use a separate stitching thread or form loops within the layers themselves. Common applications of stitch bonded fabrics include upholstery, mattress coverings, cleaning cloths, and industrial materials like filters or insulation.
This document is an 11-page lab report on studying a flat bed knitting machine. It includes diagrams of the machine's yarn path, needle beds arranged in a V formation, and cam carriage system. The report describes the machine parts like the needle beds, yarn carriers, and different cams. It explains the knitting action where the needle butts are lifted and lowered by the cam system to transfer stitches and form new loops. The conclusion states that this experiment provided an introduction to flat bed knitting machine operations and settings that could help with industrial applications.
The document discusses anti-static finishes that are applied to synthetic fabrics during processing to prevent the buildup of static charge. Synthetic fabrics are not good conductors and develop static charges during spinning, weaving, and finishing. This can cause fabrics to become entangled or attract dirt. Anti-static finishes reduce the surface charge and increase conduction, using chemicals like silicone emulsions, polyethylene emulsions, and polyammonium quaternary salts. The finish can be durable or non-durable. Higher moisture regain in fibers also helps dissipate static. Common application methods are exhaustion and pad-dry-cure.
The document discusses various weaving processes and advancements in weft insertion systems. It describes the basic weaving process involving warp let-off, shedding, picking, beating, and fabric take-up. It then summarizes different weft insertion systems including projectile, rapier, air-jet, water-jet, and multiphase weaving machines. Projectile weaving was the first successful shuttleless system. Rapier weaving uses rigid or flexible rapiers to insert the weft. Air-jet and water-jet use compressed fluids to carry the weft yarn. Multiphase weaving forms multiple sheds simultaneously to increase production rates.
Air jet looms use compressed air to propel weft yarn across the warp yarn at rates up to 2850 meters per minute, allowing for multicolor weft insertion of up to 6 colors. Air jet looms have advantages like bidirectional computer communication, automatic pick repair, and controls on weft insertion timing, but their main disadvantage is higher power consumption due to compressed air use.
1. Dyeing polyester/cotton blend fabrics using reactive disperse dyes in supercritical carbon dioxide has several advantages over conventional dyeing methods.
2. Supercritical carbon dioxide acts as a solvent for the hydrophobic disperse dyes and allows for deep penetration and homogeneous dyeing of the polyester fibers.
3. The process is more environmentally friendly as supercritical carbon dioxide is non-toxic, non-flammable and can be recycled in a closed system without disposal issues.
The document discusses limitations of cam shedding systems when weaving designs with high numbers of picks in the repeat. For a 10-pick repeat design, 10 cams would be required, rotating at 1/10 the speed of the crank shaft. This results in a small dwell period of 48 degrees for each pick. As the number of picks increases, the cam contour becomes steeper, reducing the effective force on the follower and requiring higher operating forces. One solution is increasing the cam diameter to reduce the steepness of the cam contour, but this increases power needs and space requirements.
Presentation on Weft Knitting Machine (Single Jersey, Rib & Interlock)Shawan Roy
This document provides an overview of weft knitting machines, including single jersey, rib, and interlock machines. It defines knitting as a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn and describes the key components and functions of weft knitting machines. The document classifies weft knitting machines based on their frame design, number of needle beds, product type, and basic structure. It also outlines the features and components of single jersey, rib, and interlock circular knitting machines.
Moisture management and wicking behaviour of textilesBadanayak
A seminar entitled 'Moisture management and wicking behaviour of textiles', presented in department of Textile and Apparel Designing, College of Community Science, UAS, Dharawad, by Pratikhya Badanayak and Dr. Jyoti Vastrad.
This document describes various testing equipment used to analyze the properties of textile fabrics, including moisture absorption, air permeability, water vapor permeability, moisture management, drying rate, stiffness, softness, heat and moisture transfer, water resistance, and rain resistance. Tests are performed to determine attributes important for breathability, comfort, and performance of fabrics.
This document compares and contrasts different types of soft flow dyeing machines, including their conventional and innovative aspects. It discusses the Fong's jet dyeing machine, Then-Airflow AFA machine, and Thies jet dyeing machine. Key details provided include their capacities from 50-3000kg per batch, liquor ratios from 1:3 to 1:5, maximum working temperatures of 140°C, and special features like rinsing systems, fabric transport mechanisms, and plaiting systems. The conclusion states that innovation is ongoing and more new ideas are still needed in this field.
An investigation on the inspection of grey & finished knit fabric in wet proc...Md. Mazadul Hasan Shishir
This document discusses fabric inspection processes at Aman Tex Ltd, a knit fabric dyeing and garment manufacturing company in Bangladesh. It outlines the company's operations and describes their grey fabric and finished fabric inspection procedures. For grey fabric, common defects like needle marks, holes, and dropped stitches are defined. For finished fabric, defects from dyeing and finishing like uneven dyeing, dye spots, and crease marks are explained. The aims of inspection are to ensure quality, reduce costs from defects, and improve production efficiency. Inspection standards like the four point system used by Aman Tex are presented.
The document provides details on maintenance done on a warping machine in a weaving mill. It discusses the main components of a warping machine - the creel and headstock. The creel holds supply packages and comes in different types like single end, magazine and traveling creels. The headstock controls the width and speed of the warp beam. Common problems with warping machines like guide fractures, defective stop motions, gear issues and motor failures are outlined along with their causes and solutions. Different types of warping like pattern and beam warping are also described. The presentation aims to help understand warping machine components and maintenance to improve machine operation in weaving mills.
Dref system is Dref 3000
which was introduced in
2003.It has higher
production capacity than
Dref 2000.
This document discusses friction spinning, also known as Dref spinning. It is a textile technology suitable for spinning coarse yarn counts and technical core-wrapped yarns. Dref yarns have low tensile strength, making them suitable for blankets, mops, and filters. The technology was developed in 1975 and allows yarns like rayon and Kevlar to be spun. Friction spinning uses two friction surfaces to roll fibers into yarn with very little tension applied. This makes it more productive than other spinning methods like ring and rotor spinning. Developments
A beam dyeing machine dyes yarns or fabrics that have been wound onto a special beam with perforated holes. Dye is forced through the holes into the yarn/fabric from inside to outside and vice versa for an even dyeing result without dimensional changes or mechanical forces. Some brands of beam dyeing machines are Tex-Fab, Bhagyarekha, Apexjet, Devkrut, Raj, and Devrekha. The working principle involves winding fabric onto a perforated beam, inserting it into a pressurized dyeing vessel, circulating dye under temperature and pressure, and removing the fabric. Beam dyeing allows for controlled tension and dimensions with no mechanical action on the fabric.
You can find the diffences between mechanical and electronical dobby mechanisms in principle in this presentation.
Also , you can reach the details of dobby mechanisms type like as of single , double and negative dobby systems.
The document discusses the carding process which involves opening, cleaning and assembling fibers into a sliver through different sections of a carding machine like feed, licker-in, cylinder and doffer. It explains the objectives, necessities and zones of carding along with details of components like types of clothing, their functioning and settings that are important for quality carding. The document also covers developments in carding technology and types of drives used in modern carding machines.
The document describes a modern blowroom line consisting of machines from Rieter, including a bale opener, pre-cleaner, homogeneous mixer, precision blender, storage and feeding machine, condenser, card, and sliver coiler. It provides details on the functions of the Rieter bale opener, pre-cleaner, mixer, blender, storage machine, and condenser and card, which work together to open, clean, blend, feed, and condense cotton fibers into sliver in the blowroom process.
The document discusses the key processes that take place in the blowroom of a yarn production facility. These include opening bales of fiber, cleaning the fiber through pre-cleaning and fine cleaning, removing dust, blending different fiber types, and evenly feeding the prepared fiber to the carding process. The goal of blowroom processes is to prepare fibers for subsequent processing while minimizing fiber loss and maintaining fiber quality.
The document discusses the key components and processes of a speed frame machine. It describes the functions of creeling, drafting, twisting, building, and winding processes to attenuate sliver and produce roving. The drafting system and its roller configuration is explained. Common issues like irregular roving, breakages, and machine faults are also summarized.
1) A textile is a woven fabric made by interlacing warp and weft threads. Textiles now also refer to fibers, yarns and products made from them.
2) Weaving produces fabric by intersecting the warp (lengthwise) and weft (crosswise) threads. Yarn preparation involves winding yarn onto packages to facilitate weaving and removing faults.
3) Different types of fabrics include woven, knitted, non-woven and special fabrics. Proper yarn preparation and tension are important to produce good quality fabric during weaving.
Stitch bonding is a hybrid textile manufacturing technique that combines elements of nonwoven, sewing, and knitting processes. It involves locking layers of cross-laid fibers or nonwoven fabrics into a warp knit structure using pointed needles that penetrate the layers and insert stitching yarn. There are several stitch bonding systems that differ in whether they use a separate stitching thread or form loops within the layers themselves. Common applications of stitch bonded fabrics include upholstery, mattress coverings, cleaning cloths, and industrial materials like filters or insulation.
This document is an 11-page lab report on studying a flat bed knitting machine. It includes diagrams of the machine's yarn path, needle beds arranged in a V formation, and cam carriage system. The report describes the machine parts like the needle beds, yarn carriers, and different cams. It explains the knitting action where the needle butts are lifted and lowered by the cam system to transfer stitches and form new loops. The conclusion states that this experiment provided an introduction to flat bed knitting machine operations and settings that could help with industrial applications.
The document discusses anti-static finishes that are applied to synthetic fabrics during processing to prevent the buildup of static charge. Synthetic fabrics are not good conductors and develop static charges during spinning, weaving, and finishing. This can cause fabrics to become entangled or attract dirt. Anti-static finishes reduce the surface charge and increase conduction, using chemicals like silicone emulsions, polyethylene emulsions, and polyammonium quaternary salts. The finish can be durable or non-durable. Higher moisture regain in fibers also helps dissipate static. Common application methods are exhaustion and pad-dry-cure.
The document discusses various weaving processes and advancements in weft insertion systems. It describes the basic weaving process involving warp let-off, shedding, picking, beating, and fabric take-up. It then summarizes different weft insertion systems including projectile, rapier, air-jet, water-jet, and multiphase weaving machines. Projectile weaving was the first successful shuttleless system. Rapier weaving uses rigid or flexible rapiers to insert the weft. Air-jet and water-jet use compressed fluids to carry the weft yarn. Multiphase weaving forms multiple sheds simultaneously to increase production rates.
Air jet looms use compressed air to propel weft yarn across the warp yarn at rates up to 2850 meters per minute, allowing for multicolor weft insertion of up to 6 colors. Air jet looms have advantages like bidirectional computer communication, automatic pick repair, and controls on weft insertion timing, but their main disadvantage is higher power consumption due to compressed air use.
1. Dyeing polyester/cotton blend fabrics using reactive disperse dyes in supercritical carbon dioxide has several advantages over conventional dyeing methods.
2. Supercritical carbon dioxide acts as a solvent for the hydrophobic disperse dyes and allows for deep penetration and homogeneous dyeing of the polyester fibers.
3. The process is more environmentally friendly as supercritical carbon dioxide is non-toxic, non-flammable and can be recycled in a closed system without disposal issues.
The document discusses limitations of cam shedding systems when weaving designs with high numbers of picks in the repeat. For a 10-pick repeat design, 10 cams would be required, rotating at 1/10 the speed of the crank shaft. This results in a small dwell period of 48 degrees for each pick. As the number of picks increases, the cam contour becomes steeper, reducing the effective force on the follower and requiring higher operating forces. One solution is increasing the cam diameter to reduce the steepness of the cam contour, but this increases power needs and space requirements.
Presentation on Weft Knitting Machine (Single Jersey, Rib & Interlock)Shawan Roy
This document provides an overview of weft knitting machines, including single jersey, rib, and interlock machines. It defines knitting as a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn and describes the key components and functions of weft knitting machines. The document classifies weft knitting machines based on their frame design, number of needle beds, product type, and basic structure. It also outlines the features and components of single jersey, rib, and interlock circular knitting machines.
Moisture management and wicking behaviour of textilesBadanayak
A seminar entitled 'Moisture management and wicking behaviour of textiles', presented in department of Textile and Apparel Designing, College of Community Science, UAS, Dharawad, by Pratikhya Badanayak and Dr. Jyoti Vastrad.
This document describes various testing equipment used to analyze the properties of textile fabrics, including moisture absorption, air permeability, water vapor permeability, moisture management, drying rate, stiffness, softness, heat and moisture transfer, water resistance, and rain resistance. Tests are performed to determine attributes important for breathability, comfort, and performance of fabrics.
This document discusses quality control in the textile industry. It defines quality control and its objectives to maximize production within specifications and achieve satisfactory design. It describes various quality control systems, including online systems that detect faults and take corrective action during production, and offline systems that involve stopping production for testing and inspection. It outlines several physical, chemical, and performance tests conducted on textiles, such as tensile strength testing, abrasion resistance testing, crocking resistance testing, and flame resistance testing. The goal of quality control is to maintain high quality, cost effectiveness, and environmental friendliness of textile production.
The document introduces the team Phoenix and provides information about water repellent finishes for fabrics. It defines water repellent fabrics as those that resist being wetted by water and allow water drops to roll off. There are three main types of water repellent finishes - non-durable, semi-durable, and durable. Various chemistries are used in each type of finish. Common test methods for evaluating water repellency include the spray test method. Water repellent fabrics have applications in items like umbrellas, swimsuits, car seats, and more.
Waterproof breathable fabrics technologies and practices 2Vignesh Dhanabalan
This document discusses various technologies and methods for creating waterproof breathable fabrics. It describes two main types of membranes used - micro porous and hydrophilic membranes. Methods of applying membranes include laminating, liner/insert processing, and laminating the membrane between outer and lining fabrics. The document also discusses testing methods for waterproofness and breathability, common standards, and applications of breathable fabrics such as in mechanical counter pressure suits, outdoor apparel, and neoprene sportswear.
Water repellency and flame retardancy are important textile properties. Water repellent fabrics resist water penetration and allow water to roll off, while waterproof fabrics have fewer pores and are less permeable. Several tests evaluate water repellency, including the spray test where water is sprayed on samples rated based on wetting. The Bundesmann test subjects samples to high-pressure water for 10 minutes to measure penetration and absorption. Flame retardant finishes can save fabrics from fire using compounds of phosphorus, antimony, and boron. The vertical flame test exposes samples to an open flame to evaluate flame retardancy based on after flame and char length. Proper testing ensures textiles have sufficient water repell
The popularity of LED and other innovative technologies for outdoor luminaires is driven by today’s focus on cost savings, energy savings and environmental sustainability. But if the outdoor luminaire fails prematurely, the costs of repair or replacement quickly offset any savings or other benefits that might have been realised.
Multiple studies have shown that the root cause of premature failure in outdoor luminaires can often be traced to a failure to equalize pressures within the luminaire’s housing.
Susan presented findings from a comparative study of vented and non-vented LED Roadway Streetlight housings. She discussed how luminaire longevity can be affected by the formation of condensation, the diffusion process, and the impact of factors such as temperature. As this study demonstrates, pressure differentials can compromise housing seals and joints, as well as other connection points within the LED lamp itself – which can reduce the longevity of the power-supply drivers and other electronics. Additional data, from a lifetime study of Protective Vents in outdoor enclosures, will further substantiate the benefits of venting enclosures to prevent premature failure of the sensitive electronics within.
Talk by Susan Chambers, W.L. Gore & Associates (UK) Ltd
Nonwoven fabrics are produced by bonding or interlacing fibers without weaving or knitting. They have a wide range of applications including hygiene products, packaging, household goods, protective clothing, filters, and geotextiles. There are various standardized test methods to evaluate key nonwoven properties such as tear strength, stiffness, thickness, and resistance to liquids and chemicals. Proper testing ensures nonwovens meet requirements for performance, durability, and safety in their intended end uses.
The document summarizes an experiment analyzing the effect of conditioning and softener treatment on the physical properties of denim fabric. Samples were tested with and without standard conditioning to determine the impact of temperature and humidity. Conditioned samples showed higher strength and weight. A second experiment applied cationic and silicone softeners to samples, finding silicone softener improved tear strength but reduced tensile strength and rubbing fastness more than cationic softener. Both softeners decreased properties from the untreated fabric. Conditioning was found essential for accurate testing.
Water repellency & waterproof & repellency test methodsrsujandiu
This document discusses water repellency and breathability in fabrics. It defines water repellency as water globules not spreading on a textile surface. Breathability requires fabrics to be soft, lightweight, durable, and allow rapid moisture transfer while regulating heat and moisture. Various testing methods are described to evaluate breathability properties. Coatings like polyurethane can be applied to generate micro pores for breathability. Applications include protective clothing, outdoor wear, and roofing membranes where breathability and water resistance are important.
Leak tests in parenteral preparations s majzoob-20-july2015Sayeh Majzoob
The document discusses container-closure integrity testing (CCIT) for parenteral preparations. It aims to provide an overview of CCIT, including why leaks are important to avoid, different leak testing methods, criteria for choosing a suitable method, calibration and validation requirements, and regulatory aspects. The document covers visual inspection, bubble tests, dye tests, microbial ingress tests, vacuum decay methods, pressure decay methods, and high voltage leak detection. It discusses deterministic versus probabilistic methods and FDA regulatory requirements for CCIT and particulate matter.
This document provides an overview of nano finishing of textiles, which is an incipient technology. It discusses how nanotechnology can be applied to textile finishing to impart various properties at the molecular level, such as water repellency, UV protection, antibacterial effects, wrinkle resistance, and flame retardancy. Various nanoparticles like silver, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, and silica are used in nano finishing processes according to their properties. Techniques like chemical vapor deposition and plasma deposition are used to synthesize nanoparticle coatings on textiles. Nano finishing is still an emerging field that holds potential to further enhance textile performance and functionality.
This document provides an overview of nano finishing of textiles, which is an incipient technology. It discusses how nanotechnology can be applied to textile finishing to impart various properties at the molecular level, such as water repellency, UV protection, antibacterial effects, wrinkle resistance, and flame retardancy. Various nanoparticles like silver, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, and silica are used in nano finishing processes according to their properties. Techniques like chemical vapor deposition and plasma deposition are used to synthesize nanoparticle coatings on textiles. Nano finishing is still an emerging field that holds potential to further enhance textile performance and functionality.
The paper focuses on developing an eco-friendly sanitary napkin, with multilayer construction by using biodegradable resources.
Hybrid top sheet was developed by needle punching wool fibre over cotton non-woven fabric to keep the top sheet dry. Three
different combinations of core layer were tried by sandwiching SAP (Super Absorbent Polymer) sheet between cotton, bamboo
and a blend of cotton/bamboo (50/50). Biodegradable polyethylene plastic was used as barrier layer. The performance of sanitary
napkin was assessed by absorption capacity, strike through, wet back test. Two natural herbal extract (Curcuma longa and
Azadirachta indica) were used as antimicrobial agents. It is revealed from the results that sanitary pad made of bamboo core with
Azadirachta indica finished top sheet shows best menstrual hygiene performance.
This document provides an overview of nano finishing of textiles, which is an incipient technology. It introduces nano technology and how it can be applied to textile finishing to impart new characteristics. Some key applications of nano finishing discussed include providing water and stain resistance, UV protection, antibacterial properties, wrinkle resistance, and flame retardancy. The document also describes various nano particles that can be used for different functions and synthesis methods like chemical vapor deposition and plasma deposition. In conclusion, nano finishing is still in its early stages but offers exciting opportunities to further innovate textile properties through research.
1 hr how the water source affects the water claim sa14033aeuse
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5. In this webinar…
• What is water repellency testing and why
is it important?
• The role of water repellency in the layer
system
• A general overview of the test
• How water repellency is measured
• Issues that can impact your results
• Using a more sustainable approach
6. What is water repellency testing
and why is it important?
17. • Tests for water resistance/repellency:
• Static repellency tests:
• Water contact angle – Goniometer system – sessile drop
method and contact angle hysteresis method
• BS EN ISO 23232 Aqueous liquid repellency. Water/alcohol
solution resistance test
• AATCC 193 Aqueous liquid repellency. Water/alcohol
solution resistance test
• BS EN ISO 14419 Textiles – Oil repellency. Hydrocarbon
resistance test
• AATCC 118 Oil repellency: Hydrocarbon resistance test.
• Dynamic repellency tests:
• BS EN ISO 4920 Textile fabrics – Determination of
resistance to surface wetting (spray test)
• AATCC 22 Water repellency – Spray test
• BS EN ISO 29865 Determination water repellency of fabrics
by the Bundesmann rain-shower test
• Water resistance tests:
• ISO 22958 Textiles – Water resistance – Rain tests:
exposure to horizontal water spray
• BS EN ISO 18695 Textiles – Determination of resistance to
water penetration. Impact penetration test
• AATCC 42 Water resistance: Impact penetration test
• BS EN 20811 ISO 811 Textiles – Determination of resistance
to water penetration – Hydrostatic pressure test
• AATCC 127 Water resistance: Hydrostatic pressure test
• AATCC 35 Water resistance: Rain test
• NWSP 80.6 Water resistance (hydrostatic pressure)
• Tests for water vapour permeability:
• ASTM E96 Standard test method for water vapour
transmission of materials
• ASTM F1868 Standard test method for thermal and
evaporative resistance of clothing using a sweating hot plate
• BS EN ISO 15496 Textiles – Measurement of water vapour
permeability of textiles for the purpose of quality control
• BS EN ISO 11092 Textiles – Physiological effects –
Measurement of thermal and water-vapour resistance under
steady-state conditions (sweating guarded-hotplate test)
• AATCC 204 Water vapor transmission of textiles: Method
overview and recommended applications
• Hohenstein Watson method
• EMPA Sweating cylinder method
• Manikin methods for water vapour permeability:
• ASTM F 2370 Evaporative resistance of clothing using a
sweating manikin
• Tests for air permeability:
• BS EN ISO 9237 Textiles – Determination of permeability of
fabrics to air
• ASTM D 737 Standard test method for air permeability of
textile fabrics
Testing the Outer Layer: Relevant Standards
41. The Bundesmann test
is growing in
popularity, mainly due
to changing consumer
behaviour
There is a more
sustainable option
for this type of test,
which is time,
energy and resource
intensive
The three steps for
assessment for this
test method help to
paint a full picture of
the fabric’s
performance
42. Further
Reading
• Matt Fuller and Dr MarkTaylor, members of Leeds University’s
Performance Clothing Group, explore waterproof breathable fabrics in
this article:
https://www.ukclimbing.com/articles/features/waterproof_breathable_fab
ric_-_explained-4556
• Camotrek, a website about exploring the outdoors, looks at the
differences between water resistance, repellence and proof:
https://camotrek.com/blogs/news/waterproof-and-water-repellent-
fabrics/
• Rei, an outdoorwear co-op, shares an oversight on how rainwear works:
https://www.rei.com/learn/expert-advice/rainwear-how-it-works.html
• We have published a Lab Manager’s Guide to PerformanceTesting,
which gives an overview into all the different elements:
https://www.james-heal.co.uk/the-lab-managers-guide-to-performance-
testing/
44. 44
Exploring what
makes a good
wicking fabric
Wednesday 21st April
1-2pm Eastern/6-7pm GMT
Thursday 22nd April
8-9am GMT
Editor's Notes
Before we start we have a bit of housekeeping to cover. Everyone's microphone will be muted for the presentation, so if you have a question please type it into the question box.
We will email you a copy of the slides, and a recording of the webinar, so you can revisit any section you need to.
In this webinar, we will cover:
What is water repellency testing and why is it important?
The role of water repellency in the layer system
A general overview of the test
How water repellency is measured
Issues that can impact your results
Using a more sustainable approach
Let’s start the presentation.
First we are going to take a look at water repellency and why the need for this type of testing has grown.
A good place to start with water repellency is defining some of the key terms, as the terms on this slide are often used interchangeably but mean different things.
Described in the dictionary as ‘resisting though not entirely preventing the penetration of water’, water resistance offers a low level of protection. When a garment is described as water resistant, it is often due to the composition of the fabric rather than any special properties, as tightly woven fabrics are used to prevent water from getting through – polyester would be a good example of this. If you went camping in a water resistant tent and it rained heavily overnight, you would wake up wet in the morning.
Waterproof is the other end of the scale, defined as ‘impenetrable to water’, providing the most protection from rainfall and snow. Waterproof fabrics are either inherently waterproof, or are created by adding a waterproof treatment on both sides of the fabric. Although excellent in extreme weather conditions, the nature of waterproof garments means that as water cannot get in it also cannot get out. This means that if you sweat in a waterproof garment, it is trapped, which can be uncomfortable for the wearer.
Water repellency describes water beading on the surface of a material to prevent the water penetrating. This is often achieved through combining membranes or coatings with tightly woven fabrics, we commonly see the use of DWR, or Durable Water Repellent, coatings on fabrics to achieve repellency. The benefit of water repellent garments is their breathability – the fabric remains porous making them permeable to air, water vapour and liquid water - which makes them more comfortable to the wearer. This is what the bundesmann is testing – fabrics and garments that provide protection from intermittent rain.
The term ‘Waterproof breathable’ is becoming more commonly used, and has some overlap with water repellency though requires a higher level of waterproofing.
There is some debate as to where these terms would fall if you were to put them on a scale, and we will recommend some further reading at the end of the webinar if this is of interest to you.
Why is water repellency testing important? A big part of the answer to this is driven by a change in consumer behaviour.
We have seen an increase in athleisure for many years now, the sportswear industry has influenced mainstream fashion, and innovations in technology has led to improvements in functionality. A shift to sportswear being worn day to day means that almost anyone is a potential athleisure consumer.
For outdoorwear in particular, though, the onset of a global pandemic has increased demand even further. With the long term closure of gyms, swimming pools and exercise classes, more and more of us are heading outdoors to exercise. More people are holidaying in their home country as well, which for a lot of us means swapping swimwear for cagoules and walking trousers.
A Market Analysis report found the waterproof breathable textiles market was valued at 1.7 billion dollars in 2019, and is expected to have a compound annual growth rate of 6.6% over the next 6 years. A combination of the necessity to exercise outdoors and an increase in awareness of the fitness benefits of sports has increased demand.
Buying the right clothing and equipment to undertake new outdoor activities is viewed as an investment, and so consumer expectations are high where these garments are concerned.
Outdoor wear can be expensive, and for many consumers this investment comes with an expectation around longevity. Functional textile testing, such as abrasion, pilling, tear strength and burst strength can play a part in this, though the garment is also expect to keep water out for its lifespan.
Consumers also expect comfort from their garments.
Comfort is influenced by fit factors as well as fabric properties such as stretch and recovery, and thermal and moisture management properties, but for outdoor wear in particular comfort is about finding a balance between keeping water out and letting sweat escape.
The human body generates heat and is constantly trying to regulate the core temperature between 36.5 – 37.5°C . To cool, the body sweats, which evaporates from the skin taking heat away, cooling our body. The textile garment can either help or obstruct sweat evaporating directly linked to comfort.
Safety is also a really important feature – arguably the most important feature that users can expect from their performance garments.
Performance clothing can help to protect a wearer in a range of different environments and climates. This can achieved by selecting fabrics with properties such as high water resistance, good breathability, good insulation or UV protection for example. The exact combination of properties required will vary according to the demands of the environment and the activity.
There are risks involved with getting the breathability of water repellent fabrics wrong, mainly that they can trap sweat and cause the wearer to overheat. This might not seem like an issue for a quick walk around the park, but for wearers on long hikes this could cause serious health risks.
Our expectations as consumers extend beyond garments, as it is becoming more common to buy accessories such as back packs for their water repellent or water proof qualities. This is another consideration for brands and manufacturers, and can often involve additional testing to establish what role seams, zips and pockets play.
The focus of this webinar is primarily garments, but some of the testing and methods used can be applied to other items.
To understand the testing we need to undertake, it is important to understand the make up of a garment, and the role that layers play.
In sportswear, and especially outdoor wear, a three layer clothing system is often advocated, with each layer in the system performing a different function which complements the whole for maximum comfort.
A layering system typically includes:
A Base layer (commonly referred to as the “second skin”) – this layer is worn directly next to the skin and should effectively manage liquid moisture from perspiration
This layer is usually tested in two ways, tests for absorption/distribution of liquid moisture within a fabric; and tests for rate of drying i.e. evaporation of liquid moisture from a fabric. We have covered this layer extensively in our Wicking and Dry Rate Testing webinars, and also have some webinars coming up about wicking.
Mid layer – this layer provides majority of insulation by trapping and storing warmed air
For maximum thermal insulation this layer should ideally have high loft, either in the pile of the fleece or the plume of down feathers, in order to maximize the amount of air trapped within the system for retention of heat. Testing for thermal insulation is typically performed by heated hot plate or thermal manikin methods.
Finally, the Outer protective shell layer – This layer must provide protection against environmental factors such as wind, rain, fire, tear and abrasion, and this is the layer we are focusing on for our water repellency testing.
The outer layer garment provides protection against the external environment. In the context of sports and outdoor wear this typically means protection against foul weather conditions namely rain, snow and wind. Anyone attending this webinar from the UK might have had a combination of all these types of weather just in the past weekend.
For the outer layer to be most effective, it should demonstrate high levels of water resistance without impeding the comfort of the wearer.
This is where the challenge of the outer layer comes - creating a fabric which provides good water resistance is relatively simple, but doing this while maintaining breathability is a more complex process, as these two properties have an inverse relationship in typical textiles. A completely waterproof outer layer would not be effective as it could cause excessive sweating, resulting in moisture collecting within the clothing system causing reduced insulation and comfort.
An effective outer layer should have a high level of water resistance as well as a high level of water vapour permeability (or “breathability”). How this layer is constructed plays a significant part in this.
The outer layer itself is often a layered construction, consisting of a waterproof breathable membrane laminated to a water repellent outer fabric. This is often with the addition of an inner layer which provides protection for the membrane and can also be designed to promote moisture wicking, therefore further enhancing wearer comfort.
The waterproof breathable membrane is able to resist liquid water penetration whilst still permitting the transmission of water vapour. This can be achieved by a number of different mechanisms, but before we cover those lets go over some key terminology when discussing water repellency in fabrics.
Hydrophobic literally means ‘the fear of water’, so hydrophobic fabrics repel water.
Hydrophilic means ‘a strong affinity for water’, so hydrophilic fabrics attract water and can transfer it
Using oleo at the start, so oleophobic or oleophillic, has the same definition, but the oleo part refers to oil.
To apply this terminology, mechanisms for the membrane can include:
A hydrophobic microporous membrane – this is a thin film containing lots of fine holes to allow passage of water vapour;
A hydrophilic membrane – this is the mechanism of absorption, diffusion and desorption of water vapour;
Or a bicomponent – which is a combination microporous film with additional hydrophilic/oleophobic coating.
Outer layer testing is quite different from the other layers, and is mainly focused around protective properties. It can roughly be divided into three categories:
One - water resistance/repellency tests,
Two - water vapour permeability tests
Three - air permeability tests.
…though you can see from the slide there are some other considerations.
Water repellency is tested by spray methods such as Bundesmann where water is run over the surface of the fabric and the repellency is visually graded. Water resistance is tested by forcing water under pressure through the fabric and the pressure at which water passes through is recorded. We have also done a lot of work on testing abrasion resistance of fabrics in wet conditions and we have developed a new method which can be used to test for this.
As well as keeping water out, it’s important that the fabric retains breathability to ensure that the user doesn’t over heat and become uncomfortable. This can be tested by a number of different methods which are all essentially looking to measure how much water vapour is able to pass from the inside of the fabric to the outer over a given period of time.
Air permeability can be important to test if the garment needs to be wind resistant, and this testing involves forcing air under pressure through the fabric and measuring how much can pass through and how much is blocked.
You might also want to factor in UV resistance for the outer layer, not only for protecting the wearer from UV but also protecting the garment from UV damage (which can be accelerated by the presence of moisture). A good example of when this might be required is in high-visibility safety garments for skiing or PPE where the colour fastness to UV is an important aspect of keeping the wearer safe.
We have compiled a list of relevant standards for testing the outer layer based on the properties we have just talked about.
We won’t talk through these standards now, there are far too many words on this slide, but I will share the presentation with you after this session has finished for you to reference.
Let’s take a brief look at the test process for ISO 9865, which is the determination of water repellency of fabrics by the Bundesmann rain-shower test.
Before testing can start, the Bundesmann instrument must be primed – this involves running it for 15 minutes, measuring the water in the cups and checking that all the nozzles are dripping consistently.
140mm specimens must be prepared and conditioned in line with the standard. You can use the same sample cutter as for preparing Martindale specimens.
The test specimen must be weighed prior to testing, to an accuracy off 0.01g – this measurement will be used to calculate water absorption once the test is finished.
Ensure all the cups are empty of any water before placing your specimen.
We are showing this process on the carousel in the instrument, but the cups can be removed individually if you find that easier.
START VIDEO: Identify the face of the specimen to be tested and place uppermost over the cups without any particular pre-tension, smoothing manually.
Place the clamp ring on top of the specimen and secure in place with spring clamps.
This final step is very important – ensure each drainage valve is closed! If you don’t, any water collected during the test will drain out again, voiding your results.
Repeat for up to four specimens.
The test takes 10 minutes, and on our TruRain Bundesmann you can set alarms if you are doing visual assessment at 1 and 5 minutes.
START VIDEO: This video shows what is happening underneath the specimen – wiper blades inside each cup press and rotate against the underside of the textile specimen to simulate movement during use, for example your arms moving in a jacket when walking.
300 evenly distributed nozzles produce individual raindrops to simulate a rain shower, falling on the specimen which is 1.5m below the showerhead.
On our TruRain, we have a shower guard that activates once testing has finished, to stop any further water falling on the test and also to keep the user dry.
At this point the test is finished and you move onto the assessment stage.
Now we have been through the test process, we need to understand how water repellency is measured in the context of bundesmann testing. There are three steps to the process, starting with visual assessment.
Surface water repellency is assessed by visually comparing the tested specimen with a photographic grading scale, similar to the spray rating tester. This assessment should be conducted while the specimen is still on the cup, immediately after testing.
The standard gives the option to do this assessment at 1 minute and 5 minutes into the test as well, and although these steps aren’t necessary, they can be useful for spotting early issues with the fabric.
There are 5 grades, I cannot show you these in their entirety as we aren’t allowed to reproduce the standard, but you can get an idea from this slide and we can talk through what you are looking for at each grade, and then I will show you some examples from our own testing:
Grade 5: you are looking for the fast runoff of small drops
Grade 4: you are looking for the formation of large drops
Grade 3: is when the Drops adhere to parts of the specimen
Grade 2: you would see the Specimen partly wetted
Grade 1: the Specimen is wet through over complete surface
The grading photographs are provided in the standard so you do not need to purchase additional photographs. They aren’t great quality, this standard is nearly 20 years old and the photographs do reflect that.
I have some examples of the different grades, using photographs from our research project which we will talk more about later in the presentation. This is to show the difference between a Grade 5, excellent water repellency fabric, through to a Grade 1, which would be poor.
This is a 3 layer fabric that has a polyester face with a DWR coating, an ePTFE membrane and a polyester tricot backing. This is an example of a layered outer layer as we talked about earlier.
This specimen has been assessed as Grade 4 to 5, which the standard states is the ‘formation of large drops’ with ‘fast run off of small drops’. The reference photograph shows grade 4.
This is the best example of water repellency we have to show you today.
This black fabric is a medium to heavy weight waxed cotton fabric.
Out technical specialist has graded this specimen as 3, which is “Drops adhered to part of the specimen”, and the reference photograph also shows grade 3.
This is the middle option of the three example fabrics we have.
The final example is a fire retardant fabric with splashguard.
It has been visually assessed as grade 1, which means the “Specimen is wet through over the complete surface”.
This is the worst example of water repellency we have, and it is actually quite difficult to see the water on the fabric as it has covered it and soaked through.
Resistance to water absorption is evaluated by weighing the specimen before and after test.
This ‘after-test’ measurement is taken after the specimen has been centrifuged for 15 seconds to remove any excess surface water – you can see the fabric on the centrifuge in this image. We have heard of customers shaking the fabric after the test before weighing it, however a centrifuge is referenced in the standard and is a more consistent way of removing excess water.
It is important to remove the excess surface water because this step of measurement is concerned only with the water that has been absorbed by the fabric, so weighing surface water as well would misrepresent the measurement.
The results for water absorption are worked out using a formula as stated in the standard and expressed as a percentage.
Resistance to water penetration is determined by collecting and recording any water which passes through the test specimen into the specimen holder cups.
Choosing the right measuring vessel for this step is important - the standard asks you to measure the volume in millilitres and for the best fabrics this could be a very small amount of liquid. Using a large measuring beaker could make this process much harder than it needs to be. If you have enough specimen fabric and time, it might be worth doing a test run to work out which equipment will suit you best.
As with any testing, there are certain parts of the process to look out for which can have an impact on your results.
Although the standard doesn’t call for any pre-tension of the specimen, how it is clamped can cause a variance in results.
There are two elements that can play a part in this:
1. The first is quite simple - when you clamp the specimen, ensure it doesn’t have any bumps or wrinkles. If the specimen is fraying, cut another piece. The standard recommends not cutting specimens to close to the edge as the finish can be different to the majority of the fabric.
2. The second consideration is about the thickness of fabric, and using the correct clamp, which is demonstrated in these images.
The first image shows a thin fabric with a thick fabric clamp – the clamp isn’t clamping effectively, which means the fabric is bunched in places and higher than it is supposed to be. This will impact how the fabric absorbs, as it is more likely to run off in places, and it nullifies the wipers underneath as they can’t reach the specimen.
The second image shows a thick fabric, with a thin fabric clamp, and the fabric is too thick to get the clamp all the way on. As you can see there is a gap between the top of the clamp and the specimen, this can cause pooling of water around the edge, which again can impact your results.
The third image shows the correct placement for everything to work correctly. Getting accurate results relies on the fabric being placed correctly and the instrument performing well, so be sure to take this into consideration.
Timing is everything!
We recommend having all your equipment for measurement ready to go and in close proximity to the test instrument, as delaying any of these stages can impact results.
Centrifuge your specimen quickly to stop any further water soaking in. Weigh your specimen quickly to prevent any moisture evaporating. The aim is to halt the test and capture results at a precise moment, and repeat this for every further test that you do.
This one sounds really obvious, but has become more of an issue as the fabrics we are testing get better at water repellency.
For recent testing that we have done in our laboratory, we have found the amount of water collected in the bottom of the cups - the water penetration part of the test – is minimal, and in some cases the cup remains dry.
We recommend wiping your cups with a cloth before draining the water, focusing on the spout area, so no excess water drains into your measuring device. These cups have been under rainfall for 10 minutes and will be damp, and if you collect drops from outside the cup on a fabric that hasn’t penetrated much water, your measurement could be off by 100s of percentage points.
If you are a regular attendee of our webinars, you will know we say this all the time – control your variables, consistency is key! And that is because it is so important, and you would be surprised by the number of tickets that come through our helpdesk where one small element of the testing process has impacted multiple different results.
For Water Repellency testing, things to keep an eye on include:
Conditioning – all samples must be conditioned before testing, and testing must take place in a conditioned atmosphere. ISO 139 is the guide to use for atmospheres and conditioning for the bundesmann test.
The temperature of water to be used is specified in the standard, this is 20 degrees with a tolerance of 3 degrees, or 27 degrees with a tolerance of 2 degrees in tropical countries, and you must measure this and record it on your test report. This is important for consistency of testing, and increased temperatures can cause your specimen to behave differently, and from a safety perspective as bacteria can grow when the temperature of the water rises too much.
Calibrate your equipment – we see this step missed sometimes to save time, but it is important to calibrate at the start of the day and at regular intervals. The bundesmann must be run for 15 minutes prior to testing to ensure the instrument is performing consistently.
I would now like to tell you a bit about research we have conducted recently relating to the bundesmann tester, and a method for testing more sustainably. First, a bit of context as to why we thought this was necessary.
Sustainability is one of the biggest issues facing apparel brands and manufacturers right now, this is something a lot of you attending today will be well aware of as your businesses set sustainability goals and initiatives.
Why is this?
Fashion is responsible for:
10% of the worlds greenhouse gas emission
35% of the microplastics found in oceans
And 20% of the world’s total waste water – in fact, it is estimated that 20,000 litres of water are used to produce 1kg of cotton
Fashion is second only to oil, as the largest polluters in the word, and so there is a lot of pressure to be cleaner, more efficient and ultimately sustainable.
Although testing plays a small part in the process, we have also thought about our instruments and how they can be more sustainable, and have worked on proving a solution with TruRain, our Bundesmann tester, to recirculate water.
A typical Bundesmann water repellency tester that runs for 8 hours per day, five days per week, is consuming 3360 litres of water. It is historically plumbed into the mains and drained directly after a single fall onto the specimen. Recirculating this water might not be an entirely new concept, but the focus of our research was to ensure there were no detrimental effects to testing when doing this.
For example, if the fabric sheds when being washed, and synthetic fabrics in particular shed a lot of microplastics, would this shedding stay in the water and impact the next round of testing? Would it stick to the next specimen being tested and give a false impression of water repellency for a garment that would then fail when worn?
Recording what essentially would be false results for high performance garments would negatively impact brands, but could also result in the consumer purchasing another garment quickly. Wearing garments for longer is a key pillar of sustainability in fashion, garments must keep performing to the same standard for this to be possible.
We conducted significant testing, in house and using an external laboratory, to verify that the results would be accurate regardless – the main aim of the testing was to see if there would be a variance in results between test 1 and test 150, when all other elements are controlled – the same test, the same fabric, the same environmental conditions, the same method of assessment, but the same water recirculated each time.
We picked three entirely different fabrics for this testing to cover different issues that could arise, these were the fabrics we used as examples for visual assessment:
A fire retardant fabric with splashguard
a waxed cotton fabric
and a 3 layer fabric that had a Polyester face with DWR, a ePTFE membrane & a polyester tricot backing
The results for all three were consistent from start to end, and by confirming this, we were able to calculate the savings using our recirculation unit could offer.
We saw significant cost savings: An 8-hour working day use of the TruRain recirculation system sees 83% total cost savings in energy consumption and total running costs, this is mainly due to the…
Increased throughput and productivity: This method of testing is easy to use and less ‘cumbersome’ than a traditional Bundesmann, as tests can be run continuously for 8 hours/day, 5 days/week without needing to clear and refill the water.
There is less waste: 99% less water is used during testing alone – if you did 150 tests a week (and we know some of our customers are doing far more), your water consumption drops from 2100 to just 23 litres!
Additionally, It is accurate, safe and reliable: Through the use of an effective Water Safety Plan, health and safety can be maintained with no impact on the efficacy and reliability of test results.
We also found that by using the recirculation unit, we were able to maintain the temperature of the water much easier – the percentage of water absorbed by fabrics can increase as the temperature increases, so this is important to control for consistency of results.
A move towards sustainability will come from big changes and lots of little ones, and finding more efficient ways to test will be one of those.
We have now covered all the topics we set out to, so these are the key takeaways from this presentation.
The Bundesmann test is growing in popularity, mainly due to changing consumer behaviour. More people are heading outdoors, and outdoor wear is worn more frequently. By conducting water repellency testing, you are able to give the consumer a garment that will perform to their expectations.
We have talked through the procedure for the ISO 9865 test method, and perhaps the most important part is the assessment. By measuring these three elements – visual assessment, water absorption and water penetration – you are able to build up a picture of what a fabric will behave like when subjected to the elements.
Through the research we have conducted, we have shown you can take a more sustainable approach to water repellency testing and still produce consistent and accurate results. This method of recirculating water is proven to reduce water and energy consumption, and save time and resource, and also offers benefits such as maintaining a steady temperature for testing. If you would like to talk to us further about this, please get in touch.
The technology and developments in this area of performance textiles is progressing all the time, so we can recommend some further reading to gain a good foundation of knowledge.
If you have a question, please type it into the question box and we will try to answer some now.