Resistance is a measure of how an object opposes the flow of electric current, with higher resistance meaning less current flows. The resistance of a conductor depends on its resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area, with resistance increasing as resistivity and length increase but decreasing as area increases. Resistors are used in circuits to reduce current or drop voltage levels using their resistance.

1. Page | 1
A
Project Report
On
SINGLE PHASE INVERTER
Under the guidance of
Ms. Ritu Jain
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the Award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Department of Electrical Engineering
SURESH GYAN VIHAR UNIVERSITY, JAIPUR
Submitted To: - Submitted By:-
Mr. Rahul Sharma Kishan Kumar Yadav
Asst. Professor Mahipal Singh Shaktawat
Dept. of Electrical Engineering NischalDattatreya
Nitesh Kumar
3rd year (VI Sem.)
DEPARTMENT OF ‘ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING’
SURESH GYAN VIHAR UNIVERSITY,JAIPUR

2. Page | 2
SINGLE PHASE INVERTER
Submitted by
S.No. Name of Students Enrolment No.
1. Kishan Kumar Yadav sgvu111055594
2. Mahipal Singh Shaktawat sgvu111055284
3. NischalDattatreya sgvu111055262
4. Nitesh Kumar sgvu111055292
Department of electrical engineering
GyanVihar School of Engineering & Technology
SURESH GYAN VIHAR VNIVERSITY
JAIPUR
April, 2014

3. Page | 3
S.No. Name of Students Enrolment No.
1. Kishan Kumar Yadav sgvu111055594
2. Mahipal Singh Shaktawat sgvu111055284
3. NischalDattatreya sgvu111055262
4. Nitesh Kumar sgvu111055292
Submitted to the
Department of Electrical Engineering
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical Engineering
GyanVihar School of Engineering & Technology
SURESH GYAN VIHAR UNIVERSITY
JAIPUR

4. Page | 4
April, 2014
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Project Report entitled “SINGLE PHASE INVERTER” which is
submitted by Kishan Kumar Yadav, Mahipal Singh Shaktawat, NischalDattatreya
and Nitesh Kumar in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of B. Tech. degree
in department of Electrical Engineering is a record of the candidates own work carried
out by him/them under my/our supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is
original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.
Signature
Name of Supervisor Ms. Ritu Jain
Designation Asst. Professor
Date

5. Page | 5
DECLARATION
I/we hereby declare that this submission is my/our own work and that, to
the best of my/our knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously
published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial
extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the
university or other institute of higher learning except where due
acknowledgment has been made in the text.
Signature Signature
Name Kishan Kumar Yadav Name Mahipal Singh Shaktawat
Enrolment No. Sgvu111055594 Enrolment No. Sgvu111055284
Date Date
Signature Signature
Name NischalDattatreya Name Nitesh Kumar
Enrolment No. Sgvu111055262 Enrolment No. Sgvu111055292
Date Date

6. Page | 6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech
project undertaken during B. Tech Pre final year. We owe special debt of
gratitude to Ms. Ritu Jain for his constant support and guidance throughout
the course of our work. His sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have
been a constant source of inspiration for us. It is only his cognizant efforts
that our endeavors has been light of the day.
We also take the opportunity to the acknowledge the contribute of
Mr. R.K.Gupta Head of department of Electrical Engineering for his full
support and during the development of the project. We also do not like to
miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribute of all faculty members
of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation during the
development of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our
friends for their contribute in the completion of the project.
Signature Signature
Name Kishan Kumar Yadav Name Mahipal Singh Shaktawat
Enrolment No. Sgvu111055594 Enrolment No. Sgvu111055284
Date Date
Signature Signature
Name NischalDattatreya Name Nitesh Kumar
Enrolment No. Sgvu111055262 Enrolment No. Sgvu111055292
Date Date

7. Page | 7
CONTENT
CHAPTER NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
01. INTRODUCTION 8-9
02. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION 10
03. POWER SUPPLY 11-13
3.1) Solar Plate
3.2) Working of Solar Panels
04. INVERTER 14-22
4.1) Single Phase Half Wave Inverter
4.2) Single Phase Full Wave Inverter
4.3) Square Wave Inverter
4.4) PWN control strategy
4.4.1) Amplitude & Harmonics Control
4.4.2) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
05. RESISTANCE 23-25
5.1)Resistivity of a conductor
5.2) Resistor Color Coding
06. CAPACITOR 26-28
6.1)Capacitor Color Coding
07. INDUCTOR COIL 29-30
08. TRANSISTOR 31-32
09. TRANSFORMER 33-34
9.1) EHT
9.2) Application

8. CHAPTER 1
Page | 8
INTRODUCTION
Single phaseInverter :-
The dc-ac converter, also known as the inverter, converts dc power to ac power
at desired output voltage and frequency. The dc power input to the inverter is
obtained from an existing power supply network or from a rotating alternator
through a rectifier or a battery, fuel cell, photo voltaic array or magneto
hydrodynamic generator. The filter capacitor across the input terminals of the
inverter provides a constant dc link voltage. The inverter therefore is an
adjustable-frequency voltage source. The configuration of ac to dc converter
and dc to ac inverter is called a dc link converter.
Inverters can be broadly classified into two types, voltage source and
current source inverters. A voltage–fed inverter (VFI) or more generally a
voltage–source inverter (VSI) is one in which the dc source has small or
negligible impedance. The voltage at the input terminals is constant. A current–
source inverter (CSI) is fed with adjustable current from the dc source of high
impedance that is from a constant dc source.
A voltage source inverter employing thyristors as switches, some type of
forced commutation is required, while the VSIs madeup of using GTOs, power
transistors, power MOSFETs or IGBTs, self commutation with base or gate
drive signals for their controlled turn-on and turn-off.

9. A standard single-phase voltage or current source inverter can be in the half-bridge
or full-bridge configuration. The single-phase units can be joined to have
three-phase or multiphase topologies. Some industrial applications of inverters
are for adjustable-speed ac drives, induction heating, standby aircraft power
supplies, UPS (uninterruptible power supplies) for computers, HVDC
transmission lines etc.
Page | 9

10. CHAPTER-2
Page | 10
COMPONENT SPECIFICATION
Serial No. Components Ratings Quantity
1. Resistance 330 Ω 1
2. Capacitor
(electrolytic)
100μf/25v 1
3. Capacitor
(tantalum)
0.1μf/35v
2
4. Inductor Coil 10 mH 1
5. EHT(Boost
transformer)
12-0-12/500 mA 1
6. Zero PCB - 1

11. CHAPTER-3
Page | 11
POWER SUPPLY
There are many types of DC power supply like a battery, fuel cell,
photovoltaic array or magneto hydrodynamic generator. Here we are using solar
plates or photovoltaic array as a power supply.
3.1)Solar plate: -
Solar plate is a light sensitized steel backed polymer material used by artists as
an alternative to hazardous printing techniques. It is a simple, safer, and faster
approach than traditional etching and relief printing.
It may be done by working on the plate directly, with opaque materials in the
form of non-water based pigments, or it may be utilized by exposing the plate
through a transparent film with artwork on it. The film may be created by
drawing on acetate, photocopying or scanning and printing on film, or darkroom
techniques. A positive transparency is for printing as an etching A negative
transparency is for printing a relief impression.

12. Page | 12
3.2)Working of Solar Panels: -
A study of photo
voltage was made for a series of sandwich structures on the basis of poly(3-
dode-cylthiophene) films having characteristic thicknesses 100 and 500 nm and
being deposited on n-Si and p-Si substrates from a solution. Semi-transparent Al
and Au electrodes were obtained on the surfaces of these films by thermal
evaporation. A clear photo response was obtained in films on an n-Si substrate.
Two distinct spectral components of the photo voltage were observed in the 1.3-
to 3.6-eV (900–300 nm) energy range for incident quanta. The first component
corresponds to the absorption edge of the Si substrate (1.4–1.6eV). The other
corresponds to the π-π* absorption of the polythiophene films (1.7–2.1eV).

13. The dependences of the photo voltage upon radiation intensity are different for
these two spectral components. The relaxation time of the photo response for
the second component, corresponding to the absorption in the film, is 10–20
min. This is 3–4 orders of magnitude higher than the relaxation time for the first
component. A model of the potential barrier at the polythiophene/n-Si interface,
allowing one to explain the main experimental results, is proposed. This barrier
is formed as a result of the chemical interaction of the polythiophene molecules
with the substrate.
Page | 13

14. CHAPTER-4
Page | 14
INVERTER
An Inverter is basically a converter that converts DC-AC power. Inverter
circuits can be very complex so the objective of this paper is to present some of
the inner workings of inverters without getting lost in some of the fine details.
A voltage source inverter (VSI) is one that takes in a fixed voltage from a
device, such as a dc power supply, and converts it to a variable-frequency AC
supply.
Voltage-source inverters are divided into three general categories: Pulse-width
Modulated (PWM) Inverters, Square-wave Inverters, Single-phase Inverters
with Voltage Cancellation. Pulse-width modulation inverters take in a constant
dc voltage. Diode-rectifiers are used to rectify the line voltage, and the inverter
must control the magnitude and the frequency of the ac output voltages. To do
this the inverter uses pulse-width modulation using it’s switches. There are
different methods for doing the pulse-width modulation in an inverter in order
to shape the output ac voltages to be very close to a sine wave.
4.1) Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter
 There are 2 switches by dividing the dc source voltage into two parts with
the capacitors.
 Each capacitor has the same value and has voltage Vdc / 2.
 The top(S1) and bottom(S2) switch must be complementary to each
other. (When S1 is closed, S2 must be opened and vice versa)

15.  Feedback (freewheeling) diodes are required to provide continuity of
Page | 15
current for inductive loads.
 It provides current to flow even switches are opened.

16. Page | 16
4.2) Single Phase Full Bridge Converter
 Full bridge converter is also basic circuit to convert dc to ac.
 An ac output is synthesized from a dc input by closing and opening
switches in an appropriate sequence.
 There are also four different states depending on which switches are
closed.
State
Switches
Closed
Vo
1 S1 & S2 + Vdc
2 S3 & S4 -Vdc
3 S1 & S3 0
4 S2 & S4 0

17. Page | 17
State 1 and State 2
State 3 and State 4
 Switches S1 and S4 should not be closed at the same time. S2 and S3
should be closed in parallel too otherwise, a short circuit would exist
across the dc source.
 Real switches do not turn on or off instantaneously. Hence, switching
transition times must be accommodated in the control of switches.
 Overlap of switch "on" will cause short circuit (shoot-through fault)
across the dc voltage source.
 The time allowed for switching is called blanking time.

18. Page | 18
4.3) Square-wave Inverter
The figure below is the simple square-wave inverter to show the concept of
AC waveform generation.
 The current waveform in the load depends on the load components.
 The current waveform matches the shape of the output voltage for
the resistive load.
 The current will have more sinusoidal quality than the voltage for
the inductive load because of the filtering property of the
inductance.
 For a series RL load and a square wave output voltage, switches S1
and S2 is assumed to be closed at t = 0.

19. Page | 19
4.4) PWM Control Strategy
There are several methods of controlling single phase inverter. However, these
are few criteria that we need to look at:
1. Output voltage range
2. Maximum output voltage
3. Switching losses
4. Distortion in output and input sides ( Distortion is measured based on
inverter performance)

20. Page | 20
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
 PWM provides a way to decrease the total harmonic distortion of load
current.
 Generally, THD requirements is met easily than the square wave
switching scheme for PWM inverter output after filtering.
 The unfiltered PWM output will have a relatively high THD. But, it can
be filtered easily due to high frequencies of harmonics.
There are two main types of PWM control strategy
4.4.1) Amplitude & Harmonics Control
 Amplitude of the output voltage can be controlled with the modulating
waveforms.
 Harmonics can be decreased and output voltage amplitude can be
controlled with the reduced filter requirements.
 But, control circuits for the switches is complex, losses increase due to
more frequent switching.
 The amplitude of the fundamental frequency for a square wave output
from the full bridge inverter is determined by dc input voltage.
 The switching scheme can be modified to produced a controlled output.
 An output voltage has intervals when the output is zero , + Vdc and -
Vdc.
 The output voltage can be controlled by adjusting the interval α on each
side of the pulse where the output is zero.

21. Page | 21
 α is the angle of zero voltage on each end of the pulse.
 The amplitude of the fundamental frequency (n=1) is controllable by
adjusting α.

22. Page | 22
 Harmonic content can be eliminated by adjusting α. Harmonic n is
eliminated if α = 90 0 /n
 Note:To control both amplitude and harmonics using the switching
scheme, it is necessary to be able to control the dc input voltage to the
inverter.
4.4.2) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) - Bipolar &
Unipolar switching
Control of the switches for sinusoidal PWM output requires:
 reference signal (modulating or control signal) - sinusoid in the case we
are going to learn
 carrier signal (triangular wave that controls the switching frequency)
 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

23. CHAPTER-5
Page | 23
RESISTANCE
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the
passage of an electrical current through that conductor. The inverse quantity
is electrical conductance, the ease with which an electric current passes.
Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical
notion of friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm, while electrical
conductance is measured.
An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity
and length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials
show some resistance, except for semiconductor which have a resistance of
zero.
The resistance (R) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it (V) to
current through it (I), while the conductance (G) is the inverse:
R=V/I
5.1)Resistivity of a conductor
The resistance of a given object depends primarily on two factors: What
material it is made of, and its shape. For a given material, the resistance is
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area; for example, a thick copper
wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for
a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long
copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire.
The resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section,
therefore, can be computed as

24. where is the length of the conductor, measured in meters [m], A is the cross-section
area of the conductor measured in square matrix [m²], σ (sigma) is
the electrical conductivity measured in per meter (S·m−1), and ρ is the electrical
resistivity(also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in
ohm-metres(Ωm). The resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants,
and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the geometry
of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocal Resistivity is a measure
of the material's ability to oppose electric current.
Page | 24
Resistence of 330 ohm(Ω)
5.2)Resistor color-coding

25. Page | 25
To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
 band A is first significant figure of component value (left side)
 bandB is the second significant figure (Some precision resistors have a
third significant figure, and thus five bands.)
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 bandD if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means
20%)
Color
Significant
figures
Multiplier Tolerance
Temp. Coefficient
(ppm/K)
Black 0 ×100 – 250 U
Brown 1 ×101 ±1% F 100 S
Red 2 ×102 ±2% G 50 R
Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P
Yellow 4 ×104 (±5%) – 25 Q
Green 5 ×105 ±0.5% D 20 Z
Blue 6 ×106 ±0.25% C 10 Z
Violet 7 ×107 ±0.1% B 5 M
Gray 8 ×108 ±0.05% (±10%) A 1 K
White 9 ×109 – –
Gold – ×10-1 ±5% J –
Silver – ×10-2 ±10% K –
None – – ±20% M –

26. CHAPTER-6
Page | 26
CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two- terminal
electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field.
The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The
conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminium foil or disks, etc. The ' non
conducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A
dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuit in many common electrical devices.
Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
electolytic capacitor (100μf/25v)
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a
capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q) to collect on one plate and negative
charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if an accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across
the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance.
Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge (Q) on each

27. conductor to the potential difference (V) between them. The SI unit of
capacitance is the FARAD (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF
(10−3 F).
The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between
conductors and when the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.
The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the
dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass,
air, paper and even a semiconductor depletion layer chemically identical to the
conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no
net and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold
equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric develops
an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that
one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across
the device.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined
as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them.
Page | 27
6.1)Capacitor color-coding
Capacitors may be marked with 4 or more colored bands or dots. The colors
encode the first and second most significant digits of the value, and the third
color the decimal multiplier in picofarads. Additional bands have meanings
which may vary from one type to another. Low-tolerance capacitors may begin
with the first 3 (rather than 2) digits of the value. It is usually, but not always,

28. Page | 28
possible to work out what scheme is used by the particular colors used.
Cylindrical capacitors marked with bands may look like resistors.
Color
Significant
digits
Multiplier
Capacitance
tolerance
Characteristic
DC
working
voltage
Operating
temperature
EIA/vibration
Black 0 1 ±20% — —
−55 °C to +70
°C
10 to 55 Hz
Brown 1 10 ±1% B 100 — —
Red 2 100 ±2% C —
−55 °C to +85
°C
—
Orange 3 1000 — D 300 — —
Yellow 4 10000 — E —
−55 °C to
+125 °C
10 to
2000 Hz
Green 5 100000 ±0.5% F 500 — —
Blue 6 1000000 — — —
−55 °C to
+150 °C
—
Violet 7 10000000 — — — — —
Grey 8 — — — — — —
White 9 — — — — — EIA
Gold — — ±5%* — 1000 — —
Silver — — ±10% — — — —
CHAPTER-7

29. Page | 29
INDUCTOR COIL
An inductor is a passive electronic component which is capable of storing
electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy. Basically, it uses a conductor
that is wound into a coil, and when electricity flows into the coil from the left to
the right, this will generate a magnetic field in the clockwise direction.
Presented below is the equation that represents the inductance of an inductor.
The more turns with which the conductor is wound around the core, the stronger
the magnetic field that is generated. A strong magnetic field is also generated by
increasing the cross-sectional area of the inductor or by changing the core of the
inductor.
The current level remains unchanged when DC (direct current) flows to the
inductor so no induced voltage is produced, and it is possible to consider that a
shorted state results. In other words, the inductor is a component that allows
DC, but not AC, to flow through it.

30. • The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy.
• The inductor does not allow AC to flow through it, but does allow DC to
flow through itthe properties of inductors are utilized in a variety of different
applications. There are many and varied types of inductors in existence.
Page | 30

31. CHAPTER-8
Page | 31
TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switchelectronic
signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at
least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current
applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through
another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher
than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are
used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labelledbase, collector, and
emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base
and the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the
collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are
labelledgate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current
between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge
will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in
the base. Because internally the base and emitter connections behave like a
semiconductor diode, a voltage drop
develops between base and emitter
while the base current exists. The
amount of this voltage depends on
the material the transistor is made
from, and is referred to as VBE.
PNP
P-channel
NPN
N-channel
BJT
JFET

32. Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic. The package
often dictates the power rating and frequency characteristics. Power transistors
have larger packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced cooling.
Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically
connected to the metal enclosure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount
microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand.
Page | 32

33. CHAPTER-9
Page | 33
TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive
coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying
magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux
induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary
winding. Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones
to units weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide
range of transformer designs are used in electronic and electric power
applications. Transformers are essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization of electrical energy.
9.1)EHT (transformer)
A boost (EHT) transformer is a type of transformer used to make adjustments
to the voltage applied to alternating current equipment. The boost connections
are used in several places such as uninterrupted power supply (UPS) units for
computers, and in the tanning bed industry. Operating electrical equipment at
other than its designed voltage may result in poor performance, short operating
life, or possibly overheating and damage.
Buck–boost transformers can be used to power low voltage circuits including
control, lighting circuits, or applications that require 12, 16, 24, 32 or 48 volts,
consistent with the design's secondaries. The transformer is connected as an
isolating transformer and the nameplate kVA rating is the transformer’s
capacity.

34. Page | 34
9.2)Application
Buck-boost transformers may be used for electrical equipment where the
amount of buck or boost is fixed. For example, a fixed boost would be used
when connecting equipment rated for 230 V AC to a 208 V power source.
Units are rated in volt-amperes (or more rarely, amperes) and are rated for a
percent of voltage drop or rise. For example, a buck–boost transformer rated at
10% boost will raise a supplied voltage of 208 V AC to 229 V AC. A rating of
10% buck will yield the result of 209 V AC if the actual incoming supplied
voltage is 230 V AC.

35. Page | 35
Working of single phase inverter:-
One of the most incredible things about photovoltaic power is its simplicity. It is almost
completely solid state, from the photovoltaic cell to the electricity delivered to the
consumer. Whether the application is a solar calculator with a PV array of less than 1 W
or a 100 MW grid-connected PV power generation plant, all that is required between the
solar array and the load are electronic and electrical components. Compared to other
sources of energy humankind has harnessed to make electricity, PV is the most scalable
and modular. Larger PV systems require more electrical bussing, fusing and wiring, but
the most complex component between the solar array and the load is the electronic
component that converts and processes the electricity: the inverter.
In the case of grid-tied PV, the inverter is the only piece of electronics needed between
the array and the grid. Off-grid PV applications use an additional dc to dc converter
between the array and batteries and an inverter with a built-in charger. In this article we
discuss how inverters work, including string, or single-phase, and central, 3-phase
inverters; explore major inverter functions, key components, designs, controls,
protections and communication; and theorize about future inverter technology.
Reference:
www.google.com
http//www.indiastudychannel.com