Afroasiatic, Dené-Sino-Caucasic, Eurasiatic, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan compared according to the qualities of the protolanguages and the living languages of their descendants.
An introduction to the linguistic landscape, prepared for the non-linguist.
interested in the history and the mystery of our sound & meaning
This document compares six major protolanguage families: Afroasiatic, Amerind, Dené-Caucasian, Eurasiatic, Niger-Congo, and Nilo-Saharan. It discusses features such as consonant and vowel inventories, vowel harmony, ejectives/implosives, gender systems, inclusive vs. exclusive "we", word order, and morphological typology. For each protolanguage family, it describes characteristics of the ancestral language and notes features that were inherited or diffused among modern descendant languages. Examples of structural traits that spread through language contact, such as certain sounds and grammatical properties, are also outlined.
I just published We all came out of Black Africa The best of it all is that we are still here to witness this emergence, though we may wonder if it was for the better of the planet, or even the cosmos. And nature is coming back after us to catch us and clean up the mess we made with a few pandemics and some wars and plenty of sanctions imposed by the stronger onto those who are less strong than them. How long will it last? And it will take more than a Messiah to get rid of man's vanity.
The document discusses several key aspects of language and linguistics, including:
1. It defines language as a complex biological tool used by humans to communicate through organized systems of symbols and rules.
2. It examines some key design features of human language, including duality of patterning, displacement, open-endedness, stimulus-freedom, and arbitrariness.
3. It discusses differences between human and animal communication, focusing on the human vocal tract and genes like FOXP2 that enable the complexities of human speech.
The Rosetta Stone provided the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics. Discovered in 1799 in Egypt by French soldiers, it contains a royal decree from 196 BC written in three scripts: hieroglyphic, Demotic (a cursive form of hieroglyphs), and Ancient Greek. As Greek was understood, it allowed scholars to match terms between all three, eventually deciphering hieroglyphics. The stone is from the period of Ptolemy V, when Egypt was ruled by Greek pharaohs after the conquests of Alexander the Great, establishing the Ptolemaic Dynasty. It helped scholars understand this pivotal period in Egyptian history.
Can language affect our cognition? The case of grammatical and conceptual genderEhsan Abbaspour
1) The document describes two experiments that investigated whether grammatical gender in language affects object categorization.
2) The first experiment compared how German and Arabic native speakers matched pictures of objects and people. Results showed the speakers tended to match based on their language's grammatical gender assignment.
3) The second experiment similarly compared how Spanish native speakers and Persian-Spanish bilinguals matched pictures, finding Spanish speakers were influenced by their language while bilinguals were not.
4) Overall the findings suggest one's native language significantly affects cognition through its grammatical gender system, while a second language has less influence.
The document discusses the classification and typology of human languages. It describes how languages can be classified genetically based on common ancestry or typologically based on structural features. Genetic classification groups languages into language families that descend from a proto-language. Major language families mentioned include Indo-European. Typological classification examines morphological typology based on how languages combine morphemes and syntactic typology based on word order. The document also briefly discusses the origins and types of writing systems.
A Contrastive Analysis of Phonemes in the four National Languages of Sierra L...Salone Borbor
This document provides background information on the study of Sierra Leonean languages and introduces the topic of the research. It discusses how Christian missionaries in the 19th century began studying Sierra Leonean languages to translate the Bible. It identifies Krio, Limba, Mende, and Themne as the four national languages of Sierra Leone based on a 1978 language policy. The research aims to conduct a contrastive analysis of the phonemes in these four languages to determine their divergences and relationships. It outlines the scope, significance, methodology, limitations, and hypotheses of the study.
This document discusses the etymology of words and the influence of Latin and Greek on the Spanish language. It covers topics like the origins and classifications of words through processes like derivation, composition, and parasynethesis. It also describes the different nominal declensions in Latin and how they influenced word forms and genders in Spanish. Finally, it discusses Latin prefixes, suffixes, and locutions that are still used in Spanish.
This document compares six major protolanguage families: Afroasiatic, Amerind, Dené-Caucasian, Eurasiatic, Niger-Congo, and Nilo-Saharan. It discusses features such as consonant and vowel inventories, vowel harmony, ejectives/implosives, gender systems, inclusive vs. exclusive "we", word order, and morphological typology. For each protolanguage family, it describes characteristics of the ancestral language and notes features that were inherited or diffused among modern descendant languages. Examples of structural traits that spread through language contact, such as certain sounds and grammatical properties, are also outlined.
I just published We all came out of Black Africa The best of it all is that we are still here to witness this emergence, though we may wonder if it was for the better of the planet, or even the cosmos. And nature is coming back after us to catch us and clean up the mess we made with a few pandemics and some wars and plenty of sanctions imposed by the stronger onto those who are less strong than them. How long will it last? And it will take more than a Messiah to get rid of man's vanity.
The document discusses several key aspects of language and linguistics, including:
1. It defines language as a complex biological tool used by humans to communicate through organized systems of symbols and rules.
2. It examines some key design features of human language, including duality of patterning, displacement, open-endedness, stimulus-freedom, and arbitrariness.
3. It discusses differences between human and animal communication, focusing on the human vocal tract and genes like FOXP2 that enable the complexities of human speech.
The Rosetta Stone provided the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics. Discovered in 1799 in Egypt by French soldiers, it contains a royal decree from 196 BC written in three scripts: hieroglyphic, Demotic (a cursive form of hieroglyphs), and Ancient Greek. As Greek was understood, it allowed scholars to match terms between all three, eventually deciphering hieroglyphics. The stone is from the period of Ptolemy V, when Egypt was ruled by Greek pharaohs after the conquests of Alexander the Great, establishing the Ptolemaic Dynasty. It helped scholars understand this pivotal period in Egyptian history.
Can language affect our cognition? The case of grammatical and conceptual genderEhsan Abbaspour
1) The document describes two experiments that investigated whether grammatical gender in language affects object categorization.
2) The first experiment compared how German and Arabic native speakers matched pictures of objects and people. Results showed the speakers tended to match based on their language's grammatical gender assignment.
3) The second experiment similarly compared how Spanish native speakers and Persian-Spanish bilinguals matched pictures, finding Spanish speakers were influenced by their language while bilinguals were not.
4) Overall the findings suggest one's native language significantly affects cognition through its grammatical gender system, while a second language has less influence.
The document discusses the classification and typology of human languages. It describes how languages can be classified genetically based on common ancestry or typologically based on structural features. Genetic classification groups languages into language families that descend from a proto-language. Major language families mentioned include Indo-European. Typological classification examines morphological typology based on how languages combine morphemes and syntactic typology based on word order. The document also briefly discusses the origins and types of writing systems.
A Contrastive Analysis of Phonemes in the four National Languages of Sierra L...Salone Borbor
This document provides background information on the study of Sierra Leonean languages and introduces the topic of the research. It discusses how Christian missionaries in the 19th century began studying Sierra Leonean languages to translate the Bible. It identifies Krio, Limba, Mende, and Themne as the four national languages of Sierra Leone based on a 1978 language policy. The research aims to conduct a contrastive analysis of the phonemes in these four languages to determine their divergences and relationships. It outlines the scope, significance, methodology, limitations, and hypotheses of the study.
This document discusses the etymology of words and the influence of Latin and Greek on the Spanish language. It covers topics like the origins and classifications of words through processes like derivation, composition, and parasynethesis. It also describes the different nominal declensions in Latin and how they influenced word forms and genders in Spanish. Finally, it discusses Latin prefixes, suffixes, and locutions that are still used in Spanish.
In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory edited-by-john-d-bengtsonPieterUys7
This document provides a summary of the book "In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory" which contains essays exploring aspects of prehistory with an emphasis on language. It discusses several parts of the book that focus on various language families and their connection to human migration patterns and genetics. The summary highlights articles examining questions about pan-African language roots and the distribution of certain mitochondrial haplogroups. It also critically analyzes the prevailing "Out-of-Africa" view of human origins and notes recent fossil evidence that places modern humans in locations outside of Africa earlier than previously believed.
- The number of speech sounds in all the world's languages is greater than the number of languages.
- There are estimated to be around 7,000 languages spoken globally, but the total inventory of all speech sounds across those languages is much larger, as different languages have different sets of sounds and some have more than others.
- For example, English has about 40 distinct speech sounds while other languages may have over 100, so taken together all the sounds in all the world's languages far exceeds just 7,000.
The document discusses differences between human and animal language. While animals can be trained to respond to basic commands or signs, extensive research with chimpanzees and gorillas found they lack the physical ability and cognitive capacity for human speech and language. Experiments with chimpanzees showed they could mimic signs or shapes for rewards but not engage in true linguistic behavior or conversations. The conclusion is that while animals use sounds to communicate, they do not possess human language abilities.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of human language. It presents several hypotheses for how language originated, such as imitative sounds, emotional expressions, and rhythmic grunts. While these proposed origins cannot be scientifically verified, language most likely evolved gradually with the human species through genetic and neurological changes that allowed for learning language. The development of language was enabled by the strengthening of vocal organs and the growing complexity of the brain. However, the exact process remains unclear as research continues in linguistics, biology, and neuroscience.
UNIT 1 : THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE
UNIT 2 : ANIMALS AND HUMAN LANGUAGE
UNIT 3 : THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING
UNIT 4 : THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE
UNIT 5 : THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE
UNIT 6 : WORDS and WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
UNIT 7 : MORPHOLOGY
UNIT 8 : PHRASES and SENTENCES : GRAMMAR
UNIT 9 : SYNTAX
Linguistics is the scientific study of language and involves studying topics like grammar, sounds, meaning, history and more. It emerged in the 19th century to distinguish a newer scientific approach from the traditional approach of philology. Related disciplines include sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics and others. Contrastive linguistics specifically studies differences and similarities between two or more languages. It provides insights useful for language teaching by identifying potential areas of difficulty for language learners.
This document discusses the biological foundations of language. It makes two key points: 1) Humans have an innate capacity for language that is different than other species. Physiological features like our articulatory apparatus and central nervous system give us an advantage. 2) While chimpanzees can learn some language elements, their vocal tract is different and there is no evidence they can spontaneously use language. The document also examines language development stages in children and how biological factors influence the language acquisition process.
This document provides an introduction to phonetics and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). It discusses the objectives of studying phonetics, which include understanding the relationship between sound and spelling and learning how speech sounds are produced in the vocal tract. The key topics covered are the branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics and describing language sounds. It also outlines the characteristics of a good phonetic alphabet, describes the categories of consonants and vowels, and provides examples of phonetic transcription and the English consonant and vowel systems using IPA symbols.
Animal and language is one of study which is found in Psycholinguistics. It reveal how the scientists did experiment to some animals based on intelegency (dolphin), vocal cord (bird) and behavior (primates).
This document discusses the evolution of human language. It begins by defining language and its core components, such as syntax, semantics, phonology, and pragmatics. It then explores theories on how language may have evolved, including the innate biological system perspective proposed by Chomsky and the usage-based perspective emphasizing social learning and cooperation. The document reviews comparative evidence from non-human primate vocalization and gesture research, as well as genetic and fossil evidence informing language evolution. Overall, the document analyzes perspectives on how and why human language may have emerged as a uniquely complex cognitive and social system.
The document discusses various topics related to language and communication, including:
1) It defines what language is, how it allows humans to discuss abstract concepts, and how anthropologists study language in its social and cultural contexts.
2) It examines nonhuman communication in animals like chimpanzees and gorillas and their limited capacity for language compared to humans.
3) It explores the structure of human language, including the levels of phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax that linguistic studies analyze.
This document discusses the extinction of languages and the dominance of English globally. It notes that languages are going extinct at an unprecedented rate, with over half predicted to be extinct by 2100. The main causes of extinction are globalization and migration, as dominant languages like English replace local tongues. While the spread of English has negative impacts like loss of cultural identity, it can also have positive effects by facilitating new creative expressions and empowering marginalized groups. The relationship between dominant and minority languages is complex with both restrictive and liberating elements.
The document discusses language families and provides definitions and examples. It defines a language family as a group of languages descended from a common ancestral language. The largest language families are Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan. Membership in a language family is established through comparative linguistics. Within families, languages are further divided into branches, groups, and subgroups. Some families consist of dialect continua without clear borders between languages. Language isolates have no known living relatives, like Basque.
The document provides an overview of the history and scope of linguistics. It discusses how linguistics emerged from early studies of language in ancient Babylonia and India where the first linguistic texts and grammars were developed. Key developments include the Sumerian and Akkadian languages of Mesopotamia, the Sanskrit grammatical tradition and Panini's descriptive grammar in India, and the realization that all human languages share universal features and can be systematically studied. Linguistics aims to understand and explain the structure and rules of language.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics from ancient India and Greece/Rome. The concept of the phoneme became important in the late 19th century as a way to represent pronunciation and as a foundational concept in phonological theory. The document then covers the emergence of phonology as a modern scientific field of study in Europe and North America in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, focusing on the contributions of scholars like Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield to the analysis of unwritten languages.
How To Say The Main Words In Different LanguagesLily Lake
The document discusses various languages around the world and provides a brief overview of each one, including information on where it is spoken and a common phrase for "I love you" in that language. Over 30 languages are mentioned, ranging from widely spoken ones like Spanish, Mandarin Chinese, and English to smaller languages like Bambara, Cheyenne, and Faroese. For each one a short description is given about its linguistic classification and where its speakers are located.
Language and communication can be studied from several perspectives. Language evolved from early hominid calls and gestures and allows humans to communicate about things not present. Nonverbal communication conveys meaning through signs, body language and gestures which vary across cultures. The structure of language includes phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. Sociolinguistics examines how social factors influence language variation and use. Historical linguistics studies how languages have changed over long periods of time.
- Franz Boas is considered the father of American anthropology. He established anthropology as the study of human diversity and argued that cultural and linguistic differences must be explained in their historical context.
- Boas' work on Native American languages in the Handbook of American Indian Languages helped establish linguistics as a core part of anthropological research. It showed the diversity of American Indian languages and challenged views of their inferiority.
- Linguistic anthropology emerged to study language as both a structured code and a medium for social life. It brings attention to language use and variation within social and cultural contexts.
Towards Revitalization of the Urhobo Language: A Return to OralityPremier Publishers
This document summarizes a paper that discusses efforts to revitalize the Urhobo language in Nigeria. It describes how the Urhobo language has become endangered as younger generations have shifted to speaking other languages. The author examines returning to oral traditions and using information communication technologies as ways to revive the Urhobo language. The study used interviews and a review of literature related to the Urhobo people and their language. It is based on Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, which proposes that humans are born with an innate understanding of language.
This document summarizes information from several inscriptions found in the Balkan region dating back to between the 6th and 5th centuries BC. It analyzes the inscriptions linguistically and determines that the Illyrian, Thracian, and Phrygian languages share linguistic roots that are still reflected in modern Albanian dialects. One inscription from Bulgaria is determined to be written in an early form of the Albanian language based on linguistic analysis. Another inscription from Macedonia is also analyzed and determined to be written from right to left in a dialect ancestral to modern Albanian. The document examines additional inscriptions from Greece and Turkey and finds similarities between the languages used and modern Albanian dialects, suggesting a shared linguistic heritage across the region
Latest Development On Phonetics And PhonologyDr. Cupid Lucid
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics before the 20th century, the concept of the phoneme, developments in North American phonology in the late 19th/early 20th century, and several influential theories and approaches that emerged throughout the 20th century including generative phonology, autosegmental phonology, and metrical phonology. The document aims to outline the major currents of theory that have shaped the discipline of phonology over time.
In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory edited-by-john-d-bengtsonPieterUys7
This document provides a summary of the book "In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory" which contains essays exploring aspects of prehistory with an emphasis on language. It discusses several parts of the book that focus on various language families and their connection to human migration patterns and genetics. The summary highlights articles examining questions about pan-African language roots and the distribution of certain mitochondrial haplogroups. It also critically analyzes the prevailing "Out-of-Africa" view of human origins and notes recent fossil evidence that places modern humans in locations outside of Africa earlier than previously believed.
- The number of speech sounds in all the world's languages is greater than the number of languages.
- There are estimated to be around 7,000 languages spoken globally, but the total inventory of all speech sounds across those languages is much larger, as different languages have different sets of sounds and some have more than others.
- For example, English has about 40 distinct speech sounds while other languages may have over 100, so taken together all the sounds in all the world's languages far exceeds just 7,000.
The document discusses differences between human and animal language. While animals can be trained to respond to basic commands or signs, extensive research with chimpanzees and gorillas found they lack the physical ability and cognitive capacity for human speech and language. Experiments with chimpanzees showed they could mimic signs or shapes for rewards but not engage in true linguistic behavior or conversations. The conclusion is that while animals use sounds to communicate, they do not possess human language abilities.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of human language. It presents several hypotheses for how language originated, such as imitative sounds, emotional expressions, and rhythmic grunts. While these proposed origins cannot be scientifically verified, language most likely evolved gradually with the human species through genetic and neurological changes that allowed for learning language. The development of language was enabled by the strengthening of vocal organs and the growing complexity of the brain. However, the exact process remains unclear as research continues in linguistics, biology, and neuroscience.
UNIT 1 : THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE
UNIT 2 : ANIMALS AND HUMAN LANGUAGE
UNIT 3 : THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING
UNIT 4 : THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE
UNIT 5 : THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE
UNIT 6 : WORDS and WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
UNIT 7 : MORPHOLOGY
UNIT 8 : PHRASES and SENTENCES : GRAMMAR
UNIT 9 : SYNTAX
Linguistics is the scientific study of language and involves studying topics like grammar, sounds, meaning, history and more. It emerged in the 19th century to distinguish a newer scientific approach from the traditional approach of philology. Related disciplines include sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics and others. Contrastive linguistics specifically studies differences and similarities between two or more languages. It provides insights useful for language teaching by identifying potential areas of difficulty for language learners.
This document discusses the biological foundations of language. It makes two key points: 1) Humans have an innate capacity for language that is different than other species. Physiological features like our articulatory apparatus and central nervous system give us an advantage. 2) While chimpanzees can learn some language elements, their vocal tract is different and there is no evidence they can spontaneously use language. The document also examines language development stages in children and how biological factors influence the language acquisition process.
This document provides an introduction to phonetics and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). It discusses the objectives of studying phonetics, which include understanding the relationship between sound and spelling and learning how speech sounds are produced in the vocal tract. The key topics covered are the branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics and describing language sounds. It also outlines the characteristics of a good phonetic alphabet, describes the categories of consonants and vowels, and provides examples of phonetic transcription and the English consonant and vowel systems using IPA symbols.
Animal and language is one of study which is found in Psycholinguistics. It reveal how the scientists did experiment to some animals based on intelegency (dolphin), vocal cord (bird) and behavior (primates).
This document discusses the evolution of human language. It begins by defining language and its core components, such as syntax, semantics, phonology, and pragmatics. It then explores theories on how language may have evolved, including the innate biological system perspective proposed by Chomsky and the usage-based perspective emphasizing social learning and cooperation. The document reviews comparative evidence from non-human primate vocalization and gesture research, as well as genetic and fossil evidence informing language evolution. Overall, the document analyzes perspectives on how and why human language may have emerged as a uniquely complex cognitive and social system.
The document discusses various topics related to language and communication, including:
1) It defines what language is, how it allows humans to discuss abstract concepts, and how anthropologists study language in its social and cultural contexts.
2) It examines nonhuman communication in animals like chimpanzees and gorillas and their limited capacity for language compared to humans.
3) It explores the structure of human language, including the levels of phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax that linguistic studies analyze.
This document discusses the extinction of languages and the dominance of English globally. It notes that languages are going extinct at an unprecedented rate, with over half predicted to be extinct by 2100. The main causes of extinction are globalization and migration, as dominant languages like English replace local tongues. While the spread of English has negative impacts like loss of cultural identity, it can also have positive effects by facilitating new creative expressions and empowering marginalized groups. The relationship between dominant and minority languages is complex with both restrictive and liberating elements.
The document discusses language families and provides definitions and examples. It defines a language family as a group of languages descended from a common ancestral language. The largest language families are Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan. Membership in a language family is established through comparative linguistics. Within families, languages are further divided into branches, groups, and subgroups. Some families consist of dialect continua without clear borders between languages. Language isolates have no known living relatives, like Basque.
The document provides an overview of the history and scope of linguistics. It discusses how linguistics emerged from early studies of language in ancient Babylonia and India where the first linguistic texts and grammars were developed. Key developments include the Sumerian and Akkadian languages of Mesopotamia, the Sanskrit grammatical tradition and Panini's descriptive grammar in India, and the realization that all human languages share universal features and can be systematically studied. Linguistics aims to understand and explain the structure and rules of language.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics from ancient India and Greece/Rome. The concept of the phoneme became important in the late 19th century as a way to represent pronunciation and as a foundational concept in phonological theory. The document then covers the emergence of phonology as a modern scientific field of study in Europe and North America in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, focusing on the contributions of scholars like Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield to the analysis of unwritten languages.
How To Say The Main Words In Different LanguagesLily Lake
The document discusses various languages around the world and provides a brief overview of each one, including information on where it is spoken and a common phrase for "I love you" in that language. Over 30 languages are mentioned, ranging from widely spoken ones like Spanish, Mandarin Chinese, and English to smaller languages like Bambara, Cheyenne, and Faroese. For each one a short description is given about its linguistic classification and where its speakers are located.
Language and communication can be studied from several perspectives. Language evolved from early hominid calls and gestures and allows humans to communicate about things not present. Nonverbal communication conveys meaning through signs, body language and gestures which vary across cultures. The structure of language includes phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. Sociolinguistics examines how social factors influence language variation and use. Historical linguistics studies how languages have changed over long periods of time.
- Franz Boas is considered the father of American anthropology. He established anthropology as the study of human diversity and argued that cultural and linguistic differences must be explained in their historical context.
- Boas' work on Native American languages in the Handbook of American Indian Languages helped establish linguistics as a core part of anthropological research. It showed the diversity of American Indian languages and challenged views of their inferiority.
- Linguistic anthropology emerged to study language as both a structured code and a medium for social life. It brings attention to language use and variation within social and cultural contexts.
Towards Revitalization of the Urhobo Language: A Return to OralityPremier Publishers
This document summarizes a paper that discusses efforts to revitalize the Urhobo language in Nigeria. It describes how the Urhobo language has become endangered as younger generations have shifted to speaking other languages. The author examines returning to oral traditions and using information communication technologies as ways to revive the Urhobo language. The study used interviews and a review of literature related to the Urhobo people and their language. It is based on Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, which proposes that humans are born with an innate understanding of language.
This document summarizes information from several inscriptions found in the Balkan region dating back to between the 6th and 5th centuries BC. It analyzes the inscriptions linguistically and determines that the Illyrian, Thracian, and Phrygian languages share linguistic roots that are still reflected in modern Albanian dialects. One inscription from Bulgaria is determined to be written in an early form of the Albanian language based on linguistic analysis. Another inscription from Macedonia is also analyzed and determined to be written from right to left in a dialect ancestral to modern Albanian. The document examines additional inscriptions from Greece and Turkey and finds similarities between the languages used and modern Albanian dialects, suggesting a shared linguistic heritage across the region
Latest Development On Phonetics And PhonologyDr. Cupid Lucid
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics before the 20th century, the concept of the phoneme, developments in North American phonology in the late 19th/early 20th century, and several influential theories and approaches that emerged throughout the 20th century including generative phonology, autosegmental phonology, and metrical phonology. The document aims to outline the major currents of theory that have shaped the discipline of phonology over time.
All languages share some common features at their core, but they also differ in things like pronunciation and word order. The document discusses three hypotheses for why languages share universals: that all languages descended from a single protolanguage (monogenesis), that they influence each other through language contact, and that linguistic abilities are innate to humans (innateness). It provides examples of both absolute universals found in all languages, like the distinction between vowels and consonants, as well as statistical universals that are predominant but not universal, like subjects tending to precede objects.
Welcome to the Western Original Sin & Fare Thee Well in HellEditions La Dondaine
I just published Welcome to the Western Original Sin & Fare Thee Well in Hell. James Harrod is a misguided white supremacist who thinks he is the archangel Gabriel. He uses a fiery keyboard on his computer to reject all those who do not speak Turkic languages, Indo-European languages, and Indo-Aryan languages. And he rejects the people who live in sub-Saharan Africa, you know all these black people, back to the dying hell of their jungles. He is one step away from rejecting all Asian people who speak any sort of isolating language, and he remains neutral about it, meaning he is guilty by proxy.
English belongs to the Indo-European language family, which originated from a Proto-Indo-European language spoken over Europe and parts of Asia thousands of years ago. The Indo-European family is relatively small, containing about 140 languages grouped into different subfamilies like Germanic, Romance, Slavic, and others. English is classified as a Germanic language within the Indo-European family.
English belongs to the Indo-European language family, which originated from a Proto-Indo-European language spoken over Europe and parts of Asia thousands of years ago. The Indo-European family is relatively small, containing about 140 languages grouped into different subfamilies like Germanic, Romance, Slavic, and others. English is classified as a Germanic language within the Indo-European family.
Some French expressions as used in Urhobo: a case study of the terms ‘AVOIR …...Premier Publishers
Expressions are expositions of the mind. They reveal thoughts which otherwise would have remained undisclosed. How these thoughts are expressed differ from language to language and from individual to individual. Even individual expressions can also be different one from the other even though they are expressed in the same language. In some instances, certain similarities and dissimilarities have been found in the phrasal constructions and usage of certain French and Urhobo expressions, even though they do not indicate any semantic divergences. In this study, the difference between some French ‘avoir’ expressions and their Urhobo equivalents will be examine. What happens to the verb ‘avoir’ when the expressions are translated into the Urhobo language? How is the structure of the expression affected by the transfer from one language to the other? This study is prompted by the hope of selling the Urhobo language to others as a means of saving it from extinction. The study will be based on some extracts of the French ‘Avoir …‘ expressions as compared to their Urhobo equivalents. For obvious reasons, the approach in this study will be somewhat eclectic. It will involve individual interviews, and since there will be some elements of translation the study will have recourse to Eugene Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence.
French and Urhobo languages are so linguistically different one from the other, yet their grammars show traces of similarities and differences that raise questions. Questions, which, when answered would elicit further research into the nature and various nuances of these languages; i.e. their speeches and articulations, discourses, nouns, verbs etc. In this study, the French reflexive verb and its Urhobo equivalent were examined. A description of the reflexive verb in French and Urhobo show elements of possible structural and semantic convergences and or divergences. Is every French reflexive verb also reflexive in Urhobo? Are their structural sequences the same? These and some others which surfaced in the course of this study are the questions which were answered during this study. French language is fully documented while Urhobo is much less documented. For this reason, method of research was varied. This study was based mainly on the theory of Transformational grammar also known as Transformational Generative Grammar. But because of some inherent elements of translation, Eugene Nida’s theory of equivalence was also brought into play.
The document provides an overview of linguistic terminology and concepts, including:
1) It defines basic linguistic terms like nouns, verbs, cases, and discusses language features like grammar.
2) It examines the origins and development of languages, noting similarities between languages like Sanskrit, Latin, and others that suggest a common ancestral language.
3) It outlines the work of early historical linguists who began systematically comparing languages and reconstructing proto-languages.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...Sérgio Sacani
Wereport the study of a huge optical intraday flare on 2021 November 12 at 2 a.m. UT in the blazar OJ287. In the binary black hole model, it is associated with an impact of the secondary black hole on the accretion disk of the primary. Our multifrequency observing campaign was set up to search for such a signature of the impact based on a prediction made 8 yr earlier. The first I-band results of the flare have already been reported by Kishore et al. (2024). Here we combine these data with our monitoring in the R-band. There is a big change in the R–I spectral index by 1.0 ±0.1 between the normal background and the flare, suggesting a new component of radiation. The polarization variation during the rise of the flare suggests the same. The limits on the source size place it most reasonably in the jet of the secondary BH. We then ask why we have not seen this phenomenon before. We show that OJ287 was never before observed with sufficient sensitivity on the night when the flare should have happened according to the binary model. We also study the probability that this flare is just an oversized example of intraday variability using the Krakow data set of intense monitoring between 2015 and 2023. We find that the occurrence of a flare of this size and rapidity is unlikely. In machine-readable Tables 1 and 2, we give the full orbit-linked historical light curve of OJ287 as well as the dense monitoring sample of Krakow.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
CLASS 12th CHEMISTRY SOLID STATE ppt (Animated)eitps1506
Description:
Dive into the fascinating realm of solid-state physics with our meticulously crafted online PowerPoint presentation. This immersive educational resource offers a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental concepts, theories, and applications within the realm of solid-state physics.
From crystalline structures to semiconductor devices, this presentation delves into the intricate principles governing the behavior of solids, providing clear explanations and illustrative examples to enhance understanding. Whether you're a student delving into the subject for the first time or a seasoned researcher seeking to deepen your knowledge, our presentation offers valuable insights and in-depth analyses to cater to various levels of expertise.
Key topics covered include:
Crystal Structures: Unravel the mysteries of crystalline arrangements and their significance in determining material properties.
Band Theory: Explore the electronic band structure of solids and understand how it influences their conductive properties.
Semiconductor Physics: Delve into the behavior of semiconductors, including doping, carrier transport, and device applications.
Magnetic Properties: Investigate the magnetic behavior of solids, including ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and ferrimagnetism.
Optical Properties: Examine the interaction of light with solids, including absorption, reflection, and transmission phenomena.
With visually engaging slides, informative content, and interactive elements, our online PowerPoint presentation serves as a valuable resource for students, educators, and enthusiasts alike, facilitating a deeper understanding of the captivating world of solid-state physics. Explore the intricacies of solid-state materials and unlock the secrets behind their remarkable properties with our comprehensive presentation.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
PPT on Alternate Wetting and Drying presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
(June 12, 2024) Webinar: Development of PET theranostics targeting the molecu...Scintica Instrumentation
Targeting Hsp90 and its pathogen Orthologs with Tethered Inhibitors as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategy for cancer and infectious diseases with Dr. Timothy Haystead.
2. 2
Afroasiatic, Dené-Sino-Caucasic, Eurasiatic, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan
compared according to the qualities of the protolanguages and the living
languages of their descendants
An introduction to the linguistic landscape, prepared for the non-linguist
interested in the history and the mystery of our sound & meaning
Pieter Uys
3. 3
The Mother Tongue
Humans have always known about and regretted the loss of the Mother Tongue as witnessed by myth and folk tales. But were it not
for some committed individuals, it would forever remain a matter of vague regret.
I dedicate these words to Professor Greenberg and Messrs Ruhlen and Fleming for their roles on the front line of historical linguistics
and language taxonomy. The reality of the protolanguages of the Meso and late Palæolithic now haunts the sterile fields of late
modernity. And Boreal the mystic hovers at the edge of our dreams, an envoy and a witness of the time when our ancestors
encountered the gift and the curse of speech.
I should hope that these words and this rudimentary attempt to provide a framework for researching the protolanguages in context,
would interest and maybe inspire someone, perhaps even a future linguist. There’s so much magic entangled in the sounds and
rhythms of speech, but one must first take the initiative to explore. The rewards, when they come, will be profound and valuable on
many levels.
And remember, when the diachronics fail, the dates disappoint and the cognates collapse … then you will hear the whisperings of
the word drawing near.
4. 4
CONTENTS
The Mother Tongue 3
Language Families 5
Genetic Linguistics 6
Gender, Noun Class 8
Consonant Inventory 11
Vowel Harmony 14
Morphological Typology 16
Affixes 18
Adpositions 19
Word Order 20
Conclusion 25
Bibliography 27
MAPS
Language Families 5
Sprachbund 7
Gender, Animacy 9
Grammatical Gender Categories 11
Number of Consonants 12
Vowel Inventory 13
Vowel Harmony 15
Prepositions & postpositions 19
Subject - Verb - Object 21
Subject – Object – Verb 22
WALS Word Order 23
Table: Comparison 24
5. 5
LANGUAGE FAMILIES
World Map of Language Families by Alphonse Eylenburg eylenburg.github.io
https://eylenburg.github.io/languages_map.htm
6. 6
GENETIC LINGUISTICS
It was Sergey Starostin who first revealed the opulence of the Dené-Sino-Caucasian sound system. But a language lives not only by its sounds, but by the
shapes and patterns they form. The inventory of language can be uplifting, intriguing and weird.
Vowels are slurred, they alternate and they shift, become rounded and get two dots placed over them. Sounds apologize, displace, and shift between
transitive, intransitive and mediopassive states while a host of affixes perform their functions efficiently.
Sounds are suffused with secrets and mystery, even to the experts. The respective reconstructions of Proto-Nilo-Saharan by the linguists Lionel Bender
and Christopher Ehret differ markedly – with Bender proposing 22 consonants against Ehret’s 42.
The Niger-Congo languages with the largest phoneme inventories are Nguni- and Sotho of Southern Africa. Sesotho has 39 consonants and 9 vowels while
Xhosa has 66 and 10. And you never knew that those South African languages that incorporated click consonants far surpass those who did not in number
of non-click consonants.
Along with Europe’s Caucasus area, Southern Africa holds the record for languages with the highest number of phonemes. The Tuu or southern branch of
San has the !Xóõ language which is the absolute champion in this regard.
Consider Nilo-Saharan again, and note how her quirks have flourished and evolved in the mouths of her daughters despite the insufferable areal onslaught
and the tyranny of the Sprachbund.
7. 7
SPRACHBUND
A sprachbund is an ensemble of neighbouring languages within a defined geographical area and without a close genetic heritage, which share
certain structural features. The correspondences or similarities arise from language contact. Areal linguistics is about the diffusion of structural
features across the languages and dialects of a defined geographical area. Owing to language contact which often involves bi- or trilingualism, the
languages of such an area draw lose and develop shared features.
Linguistic maps featuring several grammatical and phonological features, created by R. Pereira, a graduated linguist and conlanger.
8. 8
GENDER & NOUN CLASSES
Proto-Dene-Sino-Caucasian had noun classes, marked with prefix *u- for male and *i- for female, while prefix *w-/*b-/*m- encompasses
parts of the body, bodily fluids and some animals. Prefixes *r/*d cover more animals and natural phenomena with *s and *a.
This system is robust among the languages of the Northeast Caucasus, and far to the east where the Hindu Kush and Karakoram meet, and even in Siberia
on the banks of Yenisei. Elsewhere relics of the class markers cling to Basque and Tibetan nouns.
The number of noun classes in Niger-Congo languages can reach 23. They accommodate male, female, animacy, inanimacy, places, plants, more animals,
diminutives and abstractions.
On the other hand, Eurasiatic and Nilo-Saharan had no such thing, not even her or him. Only much later did some Nilotic tongues like Turkana and Bari pick
them up from the banter of some witty or pedantic speakers of Afroasiatic. And the Indo-Europeans, no doubt wishing to be with-it or cool, acquired three
genders in an act of excess!
So that leaves one family who’s kept him and her from the start – Afroasiatic in whose prototongue is proof.
9. 9
GENDER, ANIMATE & INANIMATE
https://linguisticmaps.tumblr.com/
Linguistic maps featuring several grammatical and phonological features, created by R. Pereira, a graduated linguist and conlanger.
11. 11
CONSONANT INVENTORY
The formidable consonant inventory of Dené-Sino-Caucasian puts that of Eurasiatic in the shade. For one thing, all of its stops and all of its affricates have
the choice of voiced or not or ejective. All in all the arsenal comprises 50 phonemic consonants and eight phonemic vowels.
This majestic phonology encompasses complex sibilant-affricate and resonant combinations, of which the cognates in Eurasiatic pale in their simplicity.
Another of its treasures is the wealth of lateral affricates like / dl, tl and tl’/. All of them survive in the East Caucasian languages Avar, Andi and Tsez, and in
Na-Dene, in words like Navajo ‘dloo’ “ground squirrel”, ‘-tle/-tlee’ “socks” and ‘tl’ee’ “night”.
Three series of sibilants and sibilant-affricates appear before the phonemes /s, c, c, ʒ/, before the palatals /ś, ć, ćʼ/ and after /š, č, čʼ, ǯ/, of which the traces
linger in Basque. Plus a series of uvulars /ʁ ɢ x, χ/ which is rare elsewhere.
By contrast, Eurasiatic offers only the plain old /l/ in *luńgV “snow” and *lVp’V “leaf, bark”, versus Proto-DSC *Htl’wǐnV “winter” and *tl’ăpǐ “leaf ” c and
PDSC *tl’ānpV “tongue, lip”.
Nilo-Saharan languages are tonal with complex vowel systems; some use tones to mark inflections like case, aspect, person. Although the north-western
group displays analytical elements and agglutination, they retain the core characteristics of the inflectional type, especially root-internal vowel change.
14. 14
VOWEL HARMONY
Some people make a special quest of living in harmony. Of course their speech is part of it. Instead of slang and swearing, they strife to articulate the
elegance in every word.
Some languages are like that, too. In Europe, Asia and Africa these employ vowel harmony. It means that a word may contain only the approved vowels of
a certain class. The criterion may be front or back position, nasal or palatal articulation, lip rounding or the position of the tongue root.
Vowel harmony is a process of assimilation in which the sounds of a word are shaped aesthetically. The result is called metaphony and it serves Eurasiatic,
Niger-Congo and the Nilo-Saharan languages very well.
In Eurasiatic it usually means that a word has either front or back vowels and that the vowels of the suffixes or declensions get in line with the “Anlaut” of
the root. Some languages like lip rounding harmony too, which occurs together with front-back harmony. African and Mongolian languages tend to use
tongue root position (ATR) harmony.
The Niger-Congo languages that have two sets of vowels: /i e ə o u/ and /i ε a ɔ υ/, use only one set in a word. Even in languages without vowel harmony,
restrictions are often placed on a word’s second vowel. Nilo-Saharan might have borrowed tongue root position harmony from the Niger-Congo family but
it might also be an ancient inherent trait of Proto-Nilo-Saharan.
Vowel harmony is strongest in the Uralo-Siberian (Finnish, Hungarian) and Transeurasian (Turkic, Mongolic) branches of Eurasiatic, and in the Niger-Congo
family. It does not seem to be important to the Afroasiatic family although there are Arabic dialects with vowel harmony, and historically the phenomenon
of Babylonian vowel harmony is well known. That was after the Akkadian language gained a fourth vowel, /e/ (on top of /a/, /u/ and /i/) by virtue of Sumerian
which in many ways was the polar opposite of Akkadian.
16. 16
MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY OF THE PROTOLANGUAGES
Morphological Typology has limited value in synchronic differentiation of language families, as some terms are vague (analytical, isolating, agglutinating,
synthetic, polysynthetic) but above all because different morphological types arise from the known protolanguages. For example, the highly polysynthetic
Proto-Dené-Sino-Caucasian is the ancestor of the isolating Chinese languages, and of the highly synthetic North Caucasian languages.
One could try to keep it simple by saying that the words of analytical languages lack endings, that agglutinating languages build chains of endings from
blocks with a single meaning each, and that the endings of inflectional languages refer to more than one thing. Polysynthetic languages combine multiple
parts of speech into one word by using fusional and agglutinative elements.
Another way is to recognize agglutination and fusion as forms of inflection; agglutination is one-dimensional while fusion is multidimensional.
Languages with a lot of inflections are called synthetic languages; these inflections may be either agglutinative or fusional. Languages that have so much
inflection that there is no easy way to distinguish an inflected word from a sentence are called polysynthetic languages.
Finnish is an example of an agglutinating synthetic language while Sanskrit is an example of a fusional synthetic language. In this paradigm, English would
be an analytical language with fusional elements.
I Proto-Dené-Sino-Caucasian was a highly polysynthetic language employing both agglutination and fusion. Among its descendants
are analytical languages like Chinese, polysynthetic inflectional languages like the NW and NE Caucasian languages, and the
agglutinative inflectional tongues Basque, Burushaski and Navajo.
II Proto-Eurasiatic was an inflectional agglutinating language that used ablaut and preferred suffixes to prefixes. Among its
descendants are fusional inflectional languages like Proto-Indo-European, Latin and Sanskrit, agglutinating inflectional languages like
Finnish and Turkish, and analytical languages with elements of fusional inflection, like English.
17. 17
III Proto-Afroasiatic was a fusional inflectional language that used ablaut, prefixes, infixes and suffixes. Among its descendants are the
modern Arabic dialects that are analytic with inflectional elements of both a fusional and agglutinating nature.
IV Proto-Nilo-Saharan was a fusional inflectional language that used both prefixes and suffixes. Among its descendants are analytical
languages like Central Sudanic and inflectional agglutinating languages like Nilotic and Nubian.
V Proto-Niger-Congo was an inflectional agglutinating language. Among its descendants are inflectional agglutinating languages like
the Ntu Group and isolating languages like those of the Kwa and Benue branches.
18. 18
AFFIXES
An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before or within or after the base of a word. An affix may thus be a prefix, infix or suffix that modifies the
meaning of a word.
https://linguisticmaps.tumblr.com/
Linguistic maps featuring several grammatical and phonological features, created by R. Pereira, a graduated linguist and conlanger.
19. 19
ADPOSITIONS
Prepositions and postpositions are a class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations or designate various semantic roles.
https://linguisticmaps.tumblr.com/image/184464412838
Linguistic maps featuring several grammatical and phonological features, created by R. Pereira, a graduated linguist and conlanger.
20. 20
WORD ORDER
Gell-Man and Ruhlen prove that the Mother Tongue had SOV word order. Except for instances of diffusion, the direction of syntactic change is mostly from
SOV to SVO. After that phase, SVO becomes VSO/VOS before reversion to SVO through diffusion, although diffusion is not the most important factor in the
development of word order. The two rarest word orders – OVS and OSV – derive directly from SOV.
Five of the six branches of the Dené-Sino-Caucasian macrofamily have exclusive SOV word order. (Subject-Object-Verb). The other branch, Sino-Tibetan,
has mainly SOV except Chinese, Bai and Karen with SVO (Subject-Verb-Object).
In Eurasiatic, 149 languages have SOV, 59 have SVO and 6, (the Island Celtic languages), have VSO. This remains a mystery and the search for substrates
continue.
Nilo-Saharan has SOV, SVO and VSO. Songhai and Saharan have SOV while Kuliak and the Nilotic languages have predominantly VSO.
Niger-Congo has 35 SOV and 264 SVO, and the Ntu-group has 1 SOV and 118 SVO.
‘The distribution of word order types in the world’s languages, interpreted in terms of the putative phylogenetic tree of human languages, strongly supports the
hypothesis that the original word order in the ancestral language was SOV. Furthermore, in the vast majority of known cases (excluding diffusion), the direction
of change has been almost uniformly SOV > SVO and, beyond that, primarily SVO > VSO/VOS. There is also evidence that the two extremely rare word orders,
OVS and OSV, derive directly from SOV.’*
*Gell-Man, Murray & Ruhlen, Merritt. (2011). The origin and evolution of word order. Santa Fe Institute, Stanford University.
24. 24
Afroasiatic
Dené-Sino-
Caucasic
Eurasiatic
Gender/Class M + F
Four noun classes
Animate M + F
Inanimate I & Inanimate II
Latent; Later in Anatolian:
Animate vs Inanimate
Later: PIE M + F + N
Affixation More prefixes than suffixes Equal distribution More suffixes than prefixes
Vowel inventory i u
a
i ɨ u
e ə o
ä /æ/
i u
e o
a
Vowel harmony Babylonian Latent; appears in daughters
Root structure
CV
CVC
C1VC2V
C1VC2VC3V
CVCC
Rounded front
vowels
In daughters
Consonant
inventory
32
[Bomhard 36 (6])
50+ 25
Morphology
Fusions
with agglutination
Polysynthetic
with fusion and agglutination
Agglutinating
with fusional elements
NB: Vowel inventory in Afroasiatic and DSC probably had a set of long vowels too.
25. 25
CONCLUSION
The oldest protolanguage of Africa (Proto-Nilo-Saharan), and the oldest one of Europe (Proto-Dené-Sino-Caucasian) were
contemporaneous with Afroasiatic. (Speculated chronology: 16,000 BC to 9,000 BC?)
Some millennia later, the largest language family of Africa (Niger-Congo) and the largest one of Eurasia (Eurasiatic) were also
contemporaries. The difference between the younger ones and the older ones is that both of the younger ones had a less complex
phonological and morphological structure.
The distributional pattern in Africa reveals that Nilo-Saharan was spoken over a contiguous area of North and North-Central Africa
which was penetrated and broken up by Niger-Congo.
Dené-Sino-Caucasian dominated the Eurasian landmass north of the Mediterranean and the Middle East, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, including the Karakorum and the Hindu Kush.
Eventually Eurasiatic languages like Indo-European, Uralic and Transeurasian displaced the Dené-Sino-Caucasian languages so that
only the Basque area, the North Caucasus, the Hunza and Nagar Valleys of Pakistan, and a few remote spots along the banks of the
Yenisei River in Siberia remained.
Afroasiatic first expanded into North Africa with the Chadic branch which took a northern route through the Sinai peninsula, and
encountered Nilo-Saharan on the way. Then the Cushitic branch in the Arabian Peninsula crossed the Bab-el-Mandeb to settle the
Horn of Africa. Here also Afroasiatic encountered Nilo-Saharan languages. (Omotic might have arrived before Cushitic).
26. 26
The next migration from the Near East involved Berber and Egyptian. Egyptians settled in the Nile Valley while Berbers spread over
the Maghreb and Sahara and did not stop until they reached the Canary Islands.
We get one more answer and more questions:
Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo have a strong connection to Borean, as Wim van Binsbergen claimed.
The question arises whether Dené-Sino-Caucasian and Nilo-Saharan were direct successors of Borean.
And when and why did the younger group displace the older one on both continents? It seems that Niger-Congo might have
displaced Nilo-Saharan in the Sahel and North Central Africa only after the Chadic disruption in West Africa.
Is also seems that Afroasiatic did not displace Dené-Sino-Caucasian anywhere in Eurasia unless Sumerian was of PDSC lineage.
Closer to historical times the Semitic branch lived in close proximity to the Proto-Indo-European in northern Mesopotamia and
eastern Anatolia, with Proto-Kartvelian nearby.
And that is that.
27. 27
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASLIP https://www.aslip.org/mt.html
Bengtson, John D. Bengtson, John D. Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian)
Languages. Santa Fe Institute.http://jdbengt.net/
Bengtson, John D. 2008. In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory: Essays in the Four Fields of Anthropology - in Honor
of Harold Crane Fleming. John Benjamins.
Binsbergen, Wim van. 2009. Exploring the long range pre and proto-history of Element Cosmologies. In: Quest: An
African Journal of Philosophy. Vol. XXIII-XXIV, No. 1-2, 2009-2010.
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protolanguage boreal borean historical linguistics genetic linguistics protolanguages language contact areal linguistics
sprachbund Nilo-Saharan languages Niger-Congo languages Dené-Sino-Caucasian Eurasiatic comparative linguistics
language in prehistory language families linguistic convergence borean roots Nostratic mother tongue grammatical gender
genetic linguistics Chadic Cushitic Semitic Omotic Berber Egyptian Akkadian Sumerian Sino Caucasian Tsjadies
Kusities Semities Omoties Genetiese taalkunde historiese taalkunde boriese stamme vokaalharmonie vowel harmony
ablaut uralo-siberian phonology altaic semantic shift proto-world mother tongue proto-human