Here are the key steps to design a variable gain audio amplifier using LM380:
1. The LM380 is an audio power amplifier that can provide a gain of up to 200. It is powered by a supply voltage between 4-15V.
2. A potentiometer is used to provide a variable gain from 1 to 50. The potentiometer is connected between the non-inverting and inverting inputs of the LM380. Turning the potentiometer varies the voltage division and thus the gain.
3. The audio input signal is given to the non-inverting terminal. A coupling capacitor is used to block any DC from the signal source and allow only the AC audio signal to pass.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER using MOSFET, Modes of operation,
The MOS differential pair with a common-mode input voltage ,Common mode rejection,gain, advantages and disadvantages.
The document describes a two port network and provides information about various parameter representations of two port networks, including:
- Z parameters define the input and transfer impedances between the two ports.
- Y parameters define the input and transfer admittances between the two ports.
- Transmission parameters (A,B,C,D) define relationships between voltages and currents at the two ports.
- Hybrid parameters also define relationships between voltages and currents at the two ports.
Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the parameter representations for given two port networks. Additionally, the document discusses how modifying a two port network impacts its parameter representations.
This document discusses Y or admittance parameters, which describe the behavior of linear two-port electrical systems using equations that relate currents and voltages. The Y parameters - Y11, Y12, Y21, and Y22 - are short circuit admittances that can be used to find the currents at each port if the voltages are known and one port is short circuited. Y parameters are useful for analyzing two-port networks and assessing the small signal stability of electrical systems.
This document discusses different types of rectifier circuits. It describes the half wave rectifier circuit which uses a single diode to rectify only the positive half cycles of the AC input. The full wave rectifier uses two diodes in a center-tapped transformer configuration to rectify both half cycles. Filter capacitors are added to convert the pulsating DC output to a constant DC voltage. Procedures are provided to experimentally determine the ripple factor, efficiency, and regulation of the half wave and full wave rectifiers both with and without filter capacitors. Key waveforms are also shown.
The Controller Design For Linear System: A State Space ApproachYang Hong
The controllers have been widely used in many industrial processes. The goal of accomplishing a practical control system design is to meet the functional requirements and achieve a satisfactory system performance. We will introduce the design method of the state feedback controller, the state observer and the servo controller with optimal control law for a linear system in this paper.
Modern Control - Lec07 - State Space Modeling of LTI SystemsAmr E. Mohamed
The document provides an overview of state-space representation of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems. It defines key concepts such as state variables, state vector, state equations, and output equations. Examples are given to show how to derive the state-space models from differential equations describing dynamical systems. Specifically, it shows how to 1) select state variables, 2) write first-order differential equations as state equations, and 3) obtain output equations to fully represent LTI systems in state-space form.
This document discusses four types of modifications that can be made to an existing power network to revise the Z-bus representation. Type 1 involves adding a branch impedance between a new bus and the reference bus. Type 2 adds a branch between a new bus and an existing bus. Type 3 adds a branch between an existing bus and the reference bus. Type 4 adds a branch between two existing buses. The document presents figures to illustrate each type and provides the corresponding equations to update the Z-bus matrix for the network.
Small signal analysis of bjt amplifiersPRAVEENA N G
The document summarizes small signal analysis of various BJT amplifier configurations. It discusses the hybrid-pi model of the BJT with and without Early effect. It then analyzes the common emitter amplifier without and with load resistance RE. It also analyzes the common collector (emitter follower) and common base amplifiers. Key parameters discussed include input resistance Ri, output resistance Ro, voltage gain AV, and current gain AI. Circuit analysis uses the hybrid-pi model and applies voltage and current division rules.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER using MOSFET, Modes of operation,
The MOS differential pair with a common-mode input voltage ,Common mode rejection,gain, advantages and disadvantages.
The document describes a two port network and provides information about various parameter representations of two port networks, including:
- Z parameters define the input and transfer impedances between the two ports.
- Y parameters define the input and transfer admittances between the two ports.
- Transmission parameters (A,B,C,D) define relationships between voltages and currents at the two ports.
- Hybrid parameters also define relationships between voltages and currents at the two ports.
Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the parameter representations for given two port networks. Additionally, the document discusses how modifying a two port network impacts its parameter representations.
This document discusses Y or admittance parameters, which describe the behavior of linear two-port electrical systems using equations that relate currents and voltages. The Y parameters - Y11, Y12, Y21, and Y22 - are short circuit admittances that can be used to find the currents at each port if the voltages are known and one port is short circuited. Y parameters are useful for analyzing two-port networks and assessing the small signal stability of electrical systems.
This document discusses different types of rectifier circuits. It describes the half wave rectifier circuit which uses a single diode to rectify only the positive half cycles of the AC input. The full wave rectifier uses two diodes in a center-tapped transformer configuration to rectify both half cycles. Filter capacitors are added to convert the pulsating DC output to a constant DC voltage. Procedures are provided to experimentally determine the ripple factor, efficiency, and regulation of the half wave and full wave rectifiers both with and without filter capacitors. Key waveforms are also shown.
The Controller Design For Linear System: A State Space ApproachYang Hong
The controllers have been widely used in many industrial processes. The goal of accomplishing a practical control system design is to meet the functional requirements and achieve a satisfactory system performance. We will introduce the design method of the state feedback controller, the state observer and the servo controller with optimal control law for a linear system in this paper.
Modern Control - Lec07 - State Space Modeling of LTI SystemsAmr E. Mohamed
The document provides an overview of state-space representation of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems. It defines key concepts such as state variables, state vector, state equations, and output equations. Examples are given to show how to derive the state-space models from differential equations describing dynamical systems. Specifically, it shows how to 1) select state variables, 2) write first-order differential equations as state equations, and 3) obtain output equations to fully represent LTI systems in state-space form.
This document discusses four types of modifications that can be made to an existing power network to revise the Z-bus representation. Type 1 involves adding a branch impedance between a new bus and the reference bus. Type 2 adds a branch between a new bus and an existing bus. Type 3 adds a branch between an existing bus and the reference bus. Type 4 adds a branch between two existing buses. The document presents figures to illustrate each type and provides the corresponding equations to update the Z-bus matrix for the network.
Small signal analysis of bjt amplifiersPRAVEENA N G
The document summarizes small signal analysis of various BJT amplifier configurations. It discusses the hybrid-pi model of the BJT with and without Early effect. It then analyzes the common emitter amplifier without and with load resistance RE. It also analyzes the common collector (emitter follower) and common base amplifiers. Key parameters discussed include input resistance Ri, output resistance Ro, voltage gain AV, and current gain AI. Circuit analysis uses the hybrid-pi model and applies voltage and current division rules.
This document provides an overview of the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET). It discusses the construction of JFETs including the source, drain and gate terminals. It describes the theory of operation explaining how applying voltages to the gate can control the channel and current flow. The key sections outline the characteristic I-V curve, pinch-off voltage, saturation level and cut-off voltage. Advantages of JFETs are also summarized such as high input impedance. Common applications are listed including use as amplifiers and constant current sources.
The document describes a multistage transistor amplifier. It defines a multistage amplifier as having multiple amplifier stages connected in series using coupling devices. It discusses different types of coupling devices like RC, RL, LC and transformer coupling. It explains the working of a typical multistage amplifier including how the gain is calculated as the product of individual stage gains. It describes how the frequency response varies with lower gains at very low and very high frequencies. Advantages include low cost and good frequency response. Disadvantages include increased noise over time and poor impedance matching. Multistage amplifiers are widely used as voltage amplifiers in audio applications.
Double Side band Suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation and Demodulation.SAiFul IslAm
This document describes an experiment on double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation and demodulation performed by electrical engineering students at the University of Asia Pacific. The objectives were to observe DSB-SC modulation using an MC1496 modulator and examine synchronous demodulation of DSB-SC signals. The experiment involved generating a message signal, carrier signal, and DSB-SC modulated signal. A balanced modulator was used to produce the DSB-SC signal. Synchronous demodulation using a balanced multiplier, low-pass filter, and same carrier signal as the modulator recovered the original message signal from the DSB-SC signal. The students observed input and output waveforms and discussed the circuit connections and results
This document introduces second-order circuits, which contain two energy storage elements (ESLs) such as capacitors or inductors. Examples include RLC, RL, and RC circuits. Analyzing second-order circuits involves determining initial conditions such as voltage and current values as well as their derivatives. Two examples are provided to demonstrate how to find the initial conditions, transient responses, and final steady-state values for simple RLC circuits when components are switched or sources are changed. The document focuses on source-free circuits initially to examine natural responses before adding independent sources to analyze both transient and steady-state behavior.
Field-effect transistors (FETs) are voltage-controlled semiconductor devices that rely on an electric field to control the shape and conductivity of a channel in the semiconductor material. The basic principle of FETs involves three terminals - the gate, source, and drain - where a voltage applied to the gate controls the current flow between the source and drain terminals. There are two main types of FETs: junction FETs (JFETs) which have a doped semiconductor channel, and metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs) which use a metal gate separated from the channel by an oxide layer. FETs can be used for switching, amplifying signals, and as variable resistors
Diodes allow electricity to flow in one direction and block it in the other. They are used in circuits for protection and applications like converting AC to DC power. There are different types of diodes but their basic function is the same. Bipolar junction transistors and MOSFETs are semiconductor devices with three terminals - gate, drain, and source - that allow current through the drain and source to be controlled by the voltage at the gate. They have different operating regions including cutoff, active, and saturation. JFETs are also field-effect transistors that operate in a similar manner.
This document discusses and analyzes the voltage gain, input resistance, and output resistance of cascode and cascade amplifiers. It shows that cascode amplifiers have a voltage gain of -gm1gm2rπ2(1+β2)(RcRL) and input resistance of R2R3rπ1. Cascade amplifiers have an overall voltage gain that is the product of the individual stage gains, gm1gm2RC2RLRC1Ri2(Ri1/(Ri1+RS)), and output resistance of RC2. Cascode amplifiers have higher gain than single stage amplifiers, while cascade amplifiers have multiple stages to further increase gain.
Este documento presenta una recopilación de problemas resueltos y propuestos relacionados con circuitos electrónicos que incluyen amplificadores operacionales, diodos y sus configuraciones. En la introducción se describen los pasos generales para resolver problemas con estos componentes. Luego, en las secciones de problemas resueltos y propuestos, se explican detalles adicionales y se resuelven ejercicios específicos como funciones de transferencia, corrientes y voltajes en diferentes configuraciones.
The document summarizes operational transconductance amplifiers (OTAs). It discusses how OTAs work as voltage controlled current sources and two-quadrant multipliers. The ideal OTA has infinite input impedance and converts the differential input voltage to a controlled current output. Real OTAs use circuitry to process input voltages over a wide range and produce a relatively output-independent current. Bipolar OTAs use a differential transistor pair to convert the input voltage difference to output current. Additional circuitry like input diode linearization can improve characteristics but reduces maximum transconductance.
The document discusses the cascode amplifier, which combines the advantages of common source and common gate amplifiers by using two transistors. It offers high gain, high input impedance, and stability. The cascode arrangement is used in applications like current mirrors, modulators, and differential amplifiers. It provides concise explanations of the cascode amplifier configuration and analysis, as well as examples of cascode current mirrors and differential amplifiers.
This document provides information about two-port network parameters including Z, Y, H, and ABCD parameters. It defines a two-port network as having two ports for input and output with two terminals pairs. The document explains that the parameters relate the terminal voltages and currents and can be determined by setting the input or output port to open or short circuit conditions. Examples are given to show how to calculate the parameters for simple circuits. Key points are summarized in less than 3 sentences.
This document discusses stability problems in negative feedback amplifiers. It explains that amplifiers can become unstable if the phase shift exceeds 180 degrees at high frequencies, causing positive feedback. The Nyquist criterion and pole locations are introduced as ways to test stability. Gain and phase margins are also defined. Feedback is shown to shift poles left, improving stability for single and double pole amplifiers, but amplifiers with more poles could become unstable if phase shift exceeds 180 degrees.
This document discusses two-port networks and their parameters. It defines a two-port network as having two ports for input and output, with four variables - I1, I2, V1, V2. The parameters that relate these variables are Z (impedance), Y (admittance), and T (ABCD transmission). Formulas are given for writing the variables in terms of the parameters. Examples are worked out finding the specific parameter values for given circuits. The document aims to understand two-port networks and analyze their behavior using different parameter representations.
The document discusses standard test signals that are used to analyze dynamic systems in signal and system analysis. It describes six common standard signals: 1) Unit step function signal, 2) Unit ramp function signal, 3) Unit parabolic function signal, 4) Unit impulse function signal, 5) Sinusoidal signal, and 6) Exponential signal. For each signal, it provides the mathematical definition and describes how it can be used to characterize the behavior of a system. The standard signals are designed to model different characteristics that may appear in real-world input signals like sudden changes, constant velocity, and constant acceleration.
Transistors have four main operating regions: reverse saturation, saturation, active, and cut off. In the saturation region, the transistor behaves like a closed switch with maximal collector and emitter currents. In the active region, the transistor performs well as an amplifier with the collector current multiplied by the base current. In the cut off region, the transistor behaves like an open switch with zero collector, emitter, and base currents. The reverse active region has the collector-base junction forward biased and base-emitter junction reverse biased.
This document discusses various bias compensation techniques used to stabilize the operating point of transistors against temperature variations. It describes how diode compensation can be used to compensate for instability due to variations in VBE or ICO with temperature. A diode is placed in the emitter or collector circuit such that its temperature dependence matches that of the transistor. Thermistor and sensistor compensation are also discussed, where a thermistor or sensistor with a negative or positive temperature coefficient respectively is used to maintain a constant voltage at the transistor base against temperature changes.
Design and Simulation of Generation of High DC Voltage using Cockcroft Walton...IRJET Journal
This document describes the design and simulation of a high voltage DC power supply using a Cockcroft-Walton voltage multiplier circuit. A 6-stage voltage multiplier circuit is simulated in MATLAB to generate 2kV DC output from a 230V AC input. The effects of changing load capacitance and wave shaping resistor values on the output impulse voltage are analyzed. Simulation results show the output voltage waveform matches the expected 2kV level. In conclusion, the MATLAB model demonstrates the ability of a Cockcroft-Walton circuit to effectively generate high DC voltages through voltage multiplication from a lower AC input.
The document provides information about a basic electronics course taught at Matrusri Engineering College. It includes the course objectives, which are to understand the characteristics and design concepts of diodes, transistors, biasing circuits, feedback amplifiers, and oscillators. The course outcomes are also listed, such as the ability to analyze rectifier, regulator, and oscillator circuits. Several sections provide additional details on topics like operational amplifiers, logic gates, and the characteristics and applications of operational amplifiers.
This document provides an overview of the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET). It discusses the construction of JFETs including the source, drain and gate terminals. It describes the theory of operation explaining how applying voltages to the gate can control the channel and current flow. The key sections outline the characteristic I-V curve, pinch-off voltage, saturation level and cut-off voltage. Advantages of JFETs are also summarized such as high input impedance. Common applications are listed including use as amplifiers and constant current sources.
The document describes a multistage transistor amplifier. It defines a multistage amplifier as having multiple amplifier stages connected in series using coupling devices. It discusses different types of coupling devices like RC, RL, LC and transformer coupling. It explains the working of a typical multistage amplifier including how the gain is calculated as the product of individual stage gains. It describes how the frequency response varies with lower gains at very low and very high frequencies. Advantages include low cost and good frequency response. Disadvantages include increased noise over time and poor impedance matching. Multistage amplifiers are widely used as voltage amplifiers in audio applications.
Double Side band Suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation and Demodulation.SAiFul IslAm
This document describes an experiment on double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation and demodulation performed by electrical engineering students at the University of Asia Pacific. The objectives were to observe DSB-SC modulation using an MC1496 modulator and examine synchronous demodulation of DSB-SC signals. The experiment involved generating a message signal, carrier signal, and DSB-SC modulated signal. A balanced modulator was used to produce the DSB-SC signal. Synchronous demodulation using a balanced multiplier, low-pass filter, and same carrier signal as the modulator recovered the original message signal from the DSB-SC signal. The students observed input and output waveforms and discussed the circuit connections and results
This document introduces second-order circuits, which contain two energy storage elements (ESLs) such as capacitors or inductors. Examples include RLC, RL, and RC circuits. Analyzing second-order circuits involves determining initial conditions such as voltage and current values as well as their derivatives. Two examples are provided to demonstrate how to find the initial conditions, transient responses, and final steady-state values for simple RLC circuits when components are switched or sources are changed. The document focuses on source-free circuits initially to examine natural responses before adding independent sources to analyze both transient and steady-state behavior.
Field-effect transistors (FETs) are voltage-controlled semiconductor devices that rely on an electric field to control the shape and conductivity of a channel in the semiconductor material. The basic principle of FETs involves three terminals - the gate, source, and drain - where a voltage applied to the gate controls the current flow between the source and drain terminals. There are two main types of FETs: junction FETs (JFETs) which have a doped semiconductor channel, and metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs) which use a metal gate separated from the channel by an oxide layer. FETs can be used for switching, amplifying signals, and as variable resistors
Diodes allow electricity to flow in one direction and block it in the other. They are used in circuits for protection and applications like converting AC to DC power. There are different types of diodes but their basic function is the same. Bipolar junction transistors and MOSFETs are semiconductor devices with three terminals - gate, drain, and source - that allow current through the drain and source to be controlled by the voltage at the gate. They have different operating regions including cutoff, active, and saturation. JFETs are also field-effect transistors that operate in a similar manner.
This document discusses and analyzes the voltage gain, input resistance, and output resistance of cascode and cascade amplifiers. It shows that cascode amplifiers have a voltage gain of -gm1gm2rπ2(1+β2)(RcRL) and input resistance of R2R3rπ1. Cascade amplifiers have an overall voltage gain that is the product of the individual stage gains, gm1gm2RC2RLRC1Ri2(Ri1/(Ri1+RS)), and output resistance of RC2. Cascode amplifiers have higher gain than single stage amplifiers, while cascade amplifiers have multiple stages to further increase gain.
Este documento presenta una recopilación de problemas resueltos y propuestos relacionados con circuitos electrónicos que incluyen amplificadores operacionales, diodos y sus configuraciones. En la introducción se describen los pasos generales para resolver problemas con estos componentes. Luego, en las secciones de problemas resueltos y propuestos, se explican detalles adicionales y se resuelven ejercicios específicos como funciones de transferencia, corrientes y voltajes en diferentes configuraciones.
The document summarizes operational transconductance amplifiers (OTAs). It discusses how OTAs work as voltage controlled current sources and two-quadrant multipliers. The ideal OTA has infinite input impedance and converts the differential input voltage to a controlled current output. Real OTAs use circuitry to process input voltages over a wide range and produce a relatively output-independent current. Bipolar OTAs use a differential transistor pair to convert the input voltage difference to output current. Additional circuitry like input diode linearization can improve characteristics but reduces maximum transconductance.
The document discusses the cascode amplifier, which combines the advantages of common source and common gate amplifiers by using two transistors. It offers high gain, high input impedance, and stability. The cascode arrangement is used in applications like current mirrors, modulators, and differential amplifiers. It provides concise explanations of the cascode amplifier configuration and analysis, as well as examples of cascode current mirrors and differential amplifiers.
This document provides information about two-port network parameters including Z, Y, H, and ABCD parameters. It defines a two-port network as having two ports for input and output with two terminals pairs. The document explains that the parameters relate the terminal voltages and currents and can be determined by setting the input or output port to open or short circuit conditions. Examples are given to show how to calculate the parameters for simple circuits. Key points are summarized in less than 3 sentences.
This document discusses stability problems in negative feedback amplifiers. It explains that amplifiers can become unstable if the phase shift exceeds 180 degrees at high frequencies, causing positive feedback. The Nyquist criterion and pole locations are introduced as ways to test stability. Gain and phase margins are also defined. Feedback is shown to shift poles left, improving stability for single and double pole amplifiers, but amplifiers with more poles could become unstable if phase shift exceeds 180 degrees.
This document discusses two-port networks and their parameters. It defines a two-port network as having two ports for input and output, with four variables - I1, I2, V1, V2. The parameters that relate these variables are Z (impedance), Y (admittance), and T (ABCD transmission). Formulas are given for writing the variables in terms of the parameters. Examples are worked out finding the specific parameter values for given circuits. The document aims to understand two-port networks and analyze their behavior using different parameter representations.
The document discusses standard test signals that are used to analyze dynamic systems in signal and system analysis. It describes six common standard signals: 1) Unit step function signal, 2) Unit ramp function signal, 3) Unit parabolic function signal, 4) Unit impulse function signal, 5) Sinusoidal signal, and 6) Exponential signal. For each signal, it provides the mathematical definition and describes how it can be used to characterize the behavior of a system. The standard signals are designed to model different characteristics that may appear in real-world input signals like sudden changes, constant velocity, and constant acceleration.
Transistors have four main operating regions: reverse saturation, saturation, active, and cut off. In the saturation region, the transistor behaves like a closed switch with maximal collector and emitter currents. In the active region, the transistor performs well as an amplifier with the collector current multiplied by the base current. In the cut off region, the transistor behaves like an open switch with zero collector, emitter, and base currents. The reverse active region has the collector-base junction forward biased and base-emitter junction reverse biased.
This document discusses various bias compensation techniques used to stabilize the operating point of transistors against temperature variations. It describes how diode compensation can be used to compensate for instability due to variations in VBE or ICO with temperature. A diode is placed in the emitter or collector circuit such that its temperature dependence matches that of the transistor. Thermistor and sensistor compensation are also discussed, where a thermistor or sensistor with a negative or positive temperature coefficient respectively is used to maintain a constant voltage at the transistor base against temperature changes.
Design and Simulation of Generation of High DC Voltage using Cockcroft Walton...IRJET Journal
This document describes the design and simulation of a high voltage DC power supply using a Cockcroft-Walton voltage multiplier circuit. A 6-stage voltage multiplier circuit is simulated in MATLAB to generate 2kV DC output from a 230V AC input. The effects of changing load capacitance and wave shaping resistor values on the output impulse voltage are analyzed. Simulation results show the output voltage waveform matches the expected 2kV level. In conclusion, the MATLAB model demonstrates the ability of a Cockcroft-Walton circuit to effectively generate high DC voltages through voltage multiplication from a lower AC input.
The document provides information about a basic electronics course taught at Matrusri Engineering College. It includes the course objectives, which are to understand the characteristics and design concepts of diodes, transistors, biasing circuits, feedback amplifiers, and oscillators. The course outcomes are also listed, such as the ability to analyze rectifier, regulator, and oscillator circuits. Several sections provide additional details on topics like operational amplifiers, logic gates, and the characteristics and applications of operational amplifiers.
Report on PCB designing and fabrication by Prince RohanRohan Das
This is a report on our printed circuit board training on Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur.
I hope this will help some student. Thank you
The document describes the design of three electronics projects: 1) A voltage regulated DC power supply that outputs +/- 5V DC. It includes the circuit diagram, components, and function of each component. 2) A multi-vibrator circuit using the NE555 timer IC to generate astable and monostable signals. It again includes the circuit, components, and function. 3) The design of second order active low pass, high pass, and band pass filters. It provides the circuit diagrams, components, design procedure, observations and calculations, results, and conclusions. The document contains detailed information on the circuit design and analysis of each project.
1. The document describes a three phase protection circuit that monitors the availability of three phase power supply and switches off connected appliances in the event of failure of one or two phases. It uses three 12V relays, a 555 timer IC, and a 230V coil contactor with four poles.
2. Key components of the protection circuit are described, including relays, contactors, 555 timer IC, diodes, zener diodes, transistors, capacitors, resistors, transformers, and optocoupler ICs. The operation of the three phase protection circuit is also explained.
3. The circuit automatically disconnects power to protected appliances through the contactor when any phase fails, and automatically restores
This document provides guidelines for writing lab manuals and instructions for students conducting experiments. It includes details on drawing circuit diagrams, taking observations, completing calculations, and obtaining instructor signatures. It then provides the content for 5 sample lab experiments, including aims, apparatus required, theory, circuit diagrams, procedures, observations tables, calculations, precautions, and results. The experiments cover topics like half wave and full wave rectifiers, zener diodes as voltage regulators, the frequency response of a CE amplifier, and cascaded CE amplifiers with and without feedback.
The document describes a student mini project to create a voltage doubler circuit using a 555 timer IC. It includes sections on the introduction, background, circuit design, testing and results, and conclusions. The circuit works by using the 555 timer to generate a square wave that drives diodes and capacitors, effectively doubling the input voltage. Testing showed the circuit operates as intended by outputting a voltage close to double the input. Further improvements could include adding more stages to create a voltage multiplier circuit.
Assignment 1 Description Marks out of Wtg() Due date .docxfredharris32
Assignment 1
Description Marks out of Wtg(%) Due date
Assignment 1 200 20 28 August 2015
Part A: Comparators and Switching (5%)
(1) Signal limit detector
Use a 339 comparator, a single 74LS02 quad NOR gate and a +5V power supply only to
design a circuit which will detect when a voltage goes outside the range +2.5V to +3.5V
and such that an LED lights and stays lit. Provide a manual reset to extinguish the LED.
Design hints
1. The circuit has an analog input and a digital output so some form of comparator circuit
is required. There are two thresholds so two comparators are required, with the analog
input applied to both. This arrangement is sometimes known as a window detector.
2. Arrange the output of the comparators to be +5V logic levels, and combine the two
outputs logically to produce one signal which is for example, high for out-of-range, and
low for within-range.
3. Latch the change from in-range to out-of-range.
Design procedure
1. Start at the output and work backwards.
2. Select a latch circuit (flip-flop) and determine what combinations of inputs are needed to
latch and then reset it, ensuring that the LED is connected correctly with regard to both
logic and current flow.
3. Determine the logic needed to combine two comparator outputs in such a way as to
correctly operate the latch.
4. Choose comparator outputs which will correctly drive the logic. Remember that the
reference voltage at the input of the comparator may be at either the + or – input.
5. Choose resistors to provide the correct reference voltages.
Note: You will need to consult data for both the 74LS02 and the 339 (see data sheets).
Test
It is strongly recommended that you assemble and test your circuit.
(2) MOSFET Switching
Find out information on the operation of, and configuring of, MOSFETs to be used in
switching circuits. In particular note the differences between BJTs and MOSFETs in this
role. Draw up a table to highlight the differences and hence the pros and cons on each
device for particular situations (eg. Switching high-to-low or low-to-high (ie. P or N type),
high or low current switching, low or high voltage switching).
Consider the following BJT switching circuit. Analyse the operation of the circuit to
understand the parameters involved. Choose suitable replacement MOSFETs to be used
ELE2504 – Electronic design and analysis 2
instead of the output switching BJTs in the given circuit. Include any necessary circuit
changes for the new devices to operate so as to maintain the circuit’s required parameters.
Where Vcc = 12V and Relay resistance = 15Ω .
ELE2504 – Electronic design and analysis 3
Part B: Transistor amplifier design (6%)
Design and test a common emitter amplifier using the circuit shown and the selected
specifications.
Specifications
Get your own spec ...
a mosquito repellent circuit to generate a frequency range between 20-38 kHz. As this particular frequency is known as ultra sound it distracts the female mosquitoes .To make this circuit we are using here IC-555 timer, variable resistor, capacitor and to generate this ultrasound frequency we are using piezzo buzzer.
this shows how to generate High Voltage Dc from low input Ac a complex circuit may comprise of 8 stage Voltage Multiplier followed by a Voltage Doubler Circuit
This document describes the design of a non-ideal buck converter circuit. Key aspects include:
- The buck converter steps down the voltage from a 350V LiPo battery to 48V for a lead acid battery.
- Components are selected to handle non-idealities like resistance and voltage drops. These include a MOSFET, diode, inductor, and capacitor.
- Calculations are done to determine duty cycle, inductor value, and capacitor value based on specifications like output voltage, current, and power.
- A Pspice simulation is used to validate the circuit design and analyze performance considering component non-idealities.
This document describes a thermistor temperature sensing alarm circuit. The circuit uses common electronic components like transistors, diodes, resistors and a buzzer to monitor temperature and raise an alarm if the temperature exceeds a set threshold. When the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor changes in a known way allowing the circuit to sense temperature changes. If the temperature goes above the threshold, the circuit activates the buzzer to alert the user. The circuit provides a low-cost solution for temperature monitoring in industrial and other applications.
When you are forced to work with a set amount of voltage, then voltage amplifiers are commonly used to increase the voltage and thus the amount of power coming out of a circuit.
The document describes experiments on electric drive systems in the Electrical Department lab at JIS College of Engineering. The 10 listed experiments include:
1. Studying thyristor controlled DC drives and chopper fed DC drives.
2. Studying AC single phase motor speed control using a TRIAC.
3. Studying PWM inverter fed 3-phase induction motor control using software.
The document provides theory, circuit diagrams, and procedures for each experiment. It describes using equipment like thyristors, choppers, inverters, motors, and software to control motor speed and study electric drive systems.
This document describes an experiment conducted on a small signal amplifier for a public address system. The objectives are to identify the role of an amplifier circuit in a PA system and to design, test, and analyze an amplifier circuit. The experiment involves designing a voltage divider biasing circuit, simulating the circuit in Multisim, and building the circuit on a breadboard. Key measurements taken include the quiescent current, voltage, and gain with and without a bypass capacitor. The results show that adding a bypass capacitor increases the gain while removing it reduces the gain due to increased degeneration.
Analog and Digital Electronics Lab ManualChirag Shetty
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2. Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College
Technical Document
This technical document is a series of Laboratory manuals of Electronics &
Telecommunication and is a certified document of Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College.
The care has been taken to make the document error free but still if any error is found
kindly bring it to the notice of subject teacher and HOD.
Recommended by,
HOD
Approved by,
Principal
Copies:
• Departmental Library
• Laboratory
• HOD
• Principal
3. FOREWORD
It is my great pleasure to present this laboratory manual for third year engineering
students for the subject of Electronic System Design keeping in view understanding
required for designing, testing and working of different electronics circuits.
As a student, many of you may be wondering with some of the questions in your
mind regarding the subject and exactly what has been tried is to answer through this
manual.
Faculty members are also advised that covering these aspects in initial stage itself, will
greatly relived them in future as much of the load will be taken care by the enthusiasm
energies of the students once they are conceptually clear.
H.O.D.
4. LABORATORY MANUAL CONTENTS
This manual is intended for the Third year students of Engineering in the subject of
Electronic System Design. This manual typically contains Practical/Lab Sessions related to
Electronics covering various aspects related to the subject to enhance understanding.
Students are advised to thoroughly go through this manual rather than only topics
mentioned in the syllabus, as practical aspects are the key to understanding conceptual
visualization of theoretical aspects covered in the books.
Good Luck for your Enjoyable Laboratory Sessions.
Prof. S. D. GIRI
5. SUBJECT INDEX:
1. Do’s and Don’ts in Laboratory.
2. Lab Exercises
1 . Design of Regulated Power supply for fixed voltage using IC 7805
2. Design of Regulated Power supply for variable voltage using LM 317.
3. To design an Instrumentation Amplifier.
4. To Design variable gain(1-50)audio power amplifier using LM380.
5. Design a tone control circuit with f B =30 Hz & fT=10 KHz and ± 20 dB
Maximum boost/cut at both ends.
6 .To design Decade Counter using IC 7490.
7. To Design Finite State Machine Mealy / Moore
8. To Study Data Acquisition System for parameters like : Temperature,
Pressure, Light
9. Build and test an electronic circuit on PCB.
3. Quiz on the subject
4. Conduction of Viva-Voce Examinations
5. Evaluation and marking system
6. 1.Do’s and Don’ts in Laboratory:
1. Do not handle any equipment before reading the instructions/Instruction manuals
2. Read carefully the power ratings of the equipment before it is switched on whether
ratings 230V/50Hz or 115V/60 Hz. For Indian equipments, the power ratings are
normally 230V/50Hz. If you have equipment with 115/60 Hz ratings, do not insert power
plug, as our normal supply is 230V/50 Hz, which will damage the equipment.
3. Observe type of sockets of equipment power to avoid mechanical damage
4. Do not forcefully place connectors to avoid the damage
5. Strictly observe the instructions given by the teacher/Lab Instructor
Instruction for Laboratory Teachers:
1. Submission related to whatever lab work has been completed should be done during
the next lab session.
2. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of marking and
evaluation patterns that will benefit the sincere students.
7. Experiment No.1
Aim: Design of Regulated Power supply for fixed voltage using IC 7805
Apparatus: Step down transformer, Diodes, capacitors, IC 7805,wires,bread board.
Circuit Diagram:
Theory: Write Specifications & applications of IC 7805.
Transformer :
Selecting a suitable transformer is of great importance. The current rating and the
secondary voltage of the transformer is a crucial factor.
• The current rating of the transformer depends upon the current required for the
load to be driven.
• The input voltage to the 7805 IC should be at least 2V greater than the required
output, therefore it requires an input voltage at least close to 7V.
• So chose a 6-0-6 transformer with current rating 500mA (Since 6*√2 = 8.4V).
NOTE : Any transformer which supplies secondary peak voltage up to 35V can be used but
as the voltage increases size of the transformer and power dissipation across regulator
increases.
8. Rectifying circuit :
The best is using a full wave rectifier
• Its advantage is DC saturation is less as in both cycle diodes conduct.
• Higher Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF).
• 1N4007 diodes are used as its is capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage
of 1000v whereas 1N4001
Voltage regulator :
As we require a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC.
7805 IC Rating :
• Input voltage range 7V-
• Current rating Ic = 1A
• Output voltage range V
Capacitors :
Knowledge of Ripple factor is essential while designing the
It is given by
• Y=1/(4√3fRC) (as the capacitor filter is used)
1. f= frequency of AC ( 50 Hz)
The best is using a full wave rectifier
advantage is DC saturation is less as in both cycle diodes conduct.
Utilization Factor (TUF).
diodes are used as its is capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage
1N4001 is 50V
ire a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC.
- 35V
VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V
Knowledge of Ripple factor is essential while designing the values of capacitors
(as the capacitor filter is used)
advantage is DC saturation is less as in both cycle diodes conduct.
diodes are used as its is capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage
values of capacitors
9. 2. R=resistance calculated
R= V/Ic
V= secondary voltage of transformer
• V=6√2=8. 4
• R=8.45/500mA=16.9Ω standard 18Ω chosen
3. C= filtering capacitance
We have to determine this capacitance for filtering
Y=Vac-rms/Vdc
Vac-rms = Vr/2√3
Vdc= VMax-(Vr/2)
Vr= VMax- VMin
• Vr = 5.2-4.8 =0. 4V
• Vac-rms = .3464V
• Vdc = 5V
• Y=0 .06928
Hence the capacitor value is found out by substituting the ripple factor in Y=1/(4√3fRC)
Thus, C= 2314 µF and standard 2200µF is chosen
Datasheet of 7805 prescribes to use a 0.01µF capacitor at the output side to
avoid transient changes in the voltages due to changes in load and a 0.33µF at the input
side of regulator to avoid ripples if the filtering is far away from regulator.
Conclusion: Output is constant and same as per design. Output is found to be regulated
hence components selected are correct.
10. Experiment No.2
Aim: Design of Regulated Power supply for variable voltage using LM 317.
Apparatus: Step down transformer, Diodes, capacitors, LM 317, potentiometer, wires,
Circuit Diagram:
Theory: Write Specifications & applications of LM317.
Transformer :
Selecting a suitable transformer is of great importance. The current rating and the
secondary voltage of the transformer is a crucial factor.
• The current rating of the transformer depends upon the current required for the
load to be driven.
• The input voltage to the LM 317 IC should be at least 3V greater than the required
20V output, therefore it requires an input voltage at least close to 23V.
• So chose a 18-0-18 transformer with current rating 500mA (Since 18*√2 = 25.4V).
NOTE : Any transformer which supplies secondary peak voltage up to 35V can be used but
as the voltage increases size of the transformer and power dissipation across regulator
increases.
11. Rectifying circuit :
1N4007 diodes are used as its is capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage of
1000v whereas 1N4001 is 50V
Voltage regulator
Example: Design a voltage Regulator using IC 317 for Vo = 2V-20V & Io = 1 A.
Vo = 1.25(1 + R1/R2)*Iadj R1
Iadj = 100*10-6
R2 = 240 Ω
When Vo = 20V
Hence R1 = 3.5 K Ω and
When Vo = 2V
Hence R1 = 0.141 K Ω
I1 = Vref/R2
= 1.25/240 = 5.2 mA
12. Select a pot 5 K Ω for R1
Output Voltage Parameter Theoretical Value Standard Value
2V R1 0.141 K Ω =141 Ω 200Ω
20 V R1 3.53K Ω 5 K pot
Conclusion: Output voltage is Variable and Regulated same as per design,
Hence component selected are correct.
14. Theory: Write Specifications & applications of Instrumentation Amplifier.
Example: Design an Instrumentation Amplifier with variable gain of
2≤ A ≤ 2000 by means of 100KΩ pot.
Gain A = (1 +2 R3/RG)(R2/R1)
Let R1 = R2 = 10 KΩ, ¼ Watt.
Maximum Gain, Ama x = (1 +2 R3/RGA)
2000 = (1 +2 R3/RGA)
2R3/ RGA = 1999 ------------(1)
Minimum Gain, Am i n = (1 +2 R3/ RG +RGA)
2 = (1 +2 R3/100KΩ+RGA)
2R3/ 100KΩ+RGA =1
2R3 = 100KΩ+RGA
Put the value of 2R3 in equation (1)
Choose RGA = 50Ω . Choose RGA = 51Ω .
Hence R3 = RGA * 1999 / 2 = 50974.5 Ω
Select R3 = 51 KΩ
Connect V1 & V2 input terminals & give an input DC = 10mV.
Vin DC = 10mV.
Keep the pot at min and max position and measure the output
voltage. Verify theoretical & practical result.
Observation Table:
Vin Vout (Max)
Practical
Vout (Min)
Practical
Vout (Max)
Calculated
Vout (Min)
Calculated
10mV
20mV
Vout (Max) = (1 +2 R3/RGA)* Vin
Vout (Min) = (1 +2 R3/RGA+ RG)* Vin
Conclusion: Thus instrumentation amplifier is designed, constructed
and gain is verified.
15. Experiment No. 4
Aim: To Design variable gain(1-50)audio power amplifier using LM380.
Apparatus: Bread Board, IC LM 380, Resistors, Capacitors, Speaker, Power Supply,
Function Generator, CRO, Connecting wires etc.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig: LM 380 for variable gain 50
Fig: Pin Configuration of IC LM380
16. Theory: Write Specifications & applications of IC LM 380.
The variable gains up to 50 are obtained by use
Of potentiometer across the two input terminals as shown in
figure. At the output of amplifier a speaker of 8 Ω is
connected through a coupling capacitor of 500 µF and to and
suppress undesirable oscillations RC network is connected at
output with 2.7Ω and 0.1 µF.
Procedure: 1. Assemble the circuit
2. Give a Sine wave input of 10 mV peak to peak at the input.
Conclusion: The gain of the circuit is 1-50 which can be increased by using positive feedback.
17. Experiment
Aim: Design a tone control circuit
boost/cut at both ends.
Apparatus: Bread Board, IC LM 833, Resistors, Capacitors, Power Supply, Function Generator, CRO,
Connecting wires etc.
Theory: Write Specifications & applications of
Design: Design the active tone
Treble Frequency and maximum boost/cut
1. Assume the value of
Fig: Active tone control circuit
Experiment No. 5
circuit with f B =30 Hz & fT=10 KHz and ± 20 dB Maximum
Bread Board, IC LM 833, Resistors, Capacitors, Power Supply, Function Generator, CRO,
Write Specifications & applications of IC LM 833.
tone control for given value of Bass frequency,
and maximum boost/cut at both ends.
Let
fB - Bass frequency,
fT - Treble frequency,
AB - Bass gain
AT - Treble gain
of R2 & calculate the value of R1.
Fig: Active tone control circuit
Maximum
Bread Board, IC LM 833, Resistors, Capacitors, Power Supply, Function Generator, CRO,
frequency,
18. AB = (R1 + R2) / R1
2. R5 = R1
3. Calculate the value of R3 using
(R1 + R3 + 2R5 ) / R3
4. Select the value of R4 using
R4 ≥ R1 + R3 + 2R5
5. C1 = 1 / 2πR2fB
6. C2 = 1 / 2πR3fT
`
Procedure:
1. Design the circuit using given formulae.
2. Implement the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Vary the input frequency & measure the output voltage.
4. Draw the frequency response on a semi log paper.
Conclusion: The gain of this circuit can be varied by using variable resistors.
19. Experiment No.6
Aim : To design Decade Counter using IC 7490.
Apparatus : Power Supply, Digital Trainer kit, IC 7490,Connecting Wires,
Function Generator, etc.
Circuit Diagram :
Theory: Write Specifications & applications of IC 7490.
Design : Design a decade up counter using JK Flip Flop.
Procedure :
1. Draw block diagram, truth table and pin diagram of 7490 IC.
2. According to pin assignment, connections are done.
3. Note down output reading.
Fig: Circuit Diagram of Decade counter
20. Truth Table for Decade Counter
Clock
pulse
Input
QD QC QB QA
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
Conclusion: By using IC 7490 we have designed decade counter which count binary
number from 0000 to 1001.
21. Experiment No. 7
Aim: To Design Finite State Machine Mealy / Moore
Apparatus: Power Supply, Digital Trainer Kit, IC 7404,7474,7410,7411, Connecting wires,
Clock Pulse Generator, etc.
Design: Design a sequence detector circuit to detect a serial input sequence of 1010. It
should produce an output 1 when the input pattern has been detected.
Input 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Output 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Circuit Diagram:
Y
X
CLK
D
CP Q
_
Q
D
CP Q
_
Q
22. Theory: Write Specifications & applications of IC 7404, IC 7410, IC 7411,
IC 7474.
Procedure:
1) Draw state Diagram, Truth Table, Circuit Diagram.
2) According to pin assignment , connections are done.
3) Note down output.
Conclusion: By using ICs 7404,7474,7410 and 7411 we have designed a sequence
detector.
IC 7404 IC 7410
IC 7411 IC 7474
23. Experiment No.8
Aim: To Study Data Acquisition System for parameters like : Temperature, Pressure,
Light.
Theory:
Data Acquisition System
There are nearly as many systems for acquiring data as there are types of data. However,
study of this experiment confines itself to a particular class of data acquisition system,
defined as: an electronic instrument, or group of interconnected electronic hardware
items, dedicated to the measurement and quantization of analog signals for digital analysis
or processing.
Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical
conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be
manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems, abbreviated by the
acronyms DAS or DAQ, typically convert analog waveforms into digital values for
processing. The components of data acquisition systems include:
• Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
• Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can be
converted to digital values.
Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values.
Figure 1: Basic Data Acquisition System Block Diagram
24. Analog Multiplexer:
The analog multiplexer permits a number of signal sources to be automatically measured by
the same data acquisition hardware. It consists of a series of switches whose inputs are
tied to the various analog signals and whose outputs are tied to a common measuring point.
Each input is individually connected to the measuring point in a predetermined sequence.
The number of channels in a multiplexer may vary from two to several hundred.
Signal Conditioning:
Very often the signals presented to the inputs of the data acquisition system are
not in a form appropriate for conversion, and so they must be preconditioned. The required
signal conditioning could consist of linear amplification, logarithmic amplification, filtering,
peak detection, or sample-and-hold. Often more than one of these functions is acquired.
For instance, it is not uncommon to combine amplification with filtering or to find a low-
level amplifier before a sample-and-hold.
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter
The analog to digital converter actually translates the analog signal into an encoded digital
format. Of the numerous ways to perform this function, only about half-dozen techniques
have found wide acceptance. Most notable are the dual-slope integrating and the
successive approximation converters. A/D converters are often referred to by the number
of output digits they produce. In a binary system, the range is from 4 to 16 bits, while in a
binary-coded decimal system, 3 to 4 digits are normal.
Digital Clock
The digital clock provides the master timing for the data acquisition system. It may be as
simple as a multi phased crystal controlled oscillator, or it may provide the user with a
wide selection of multiplexer rates and modes of operation. Some systems also contain
both time-of-day and day-of-year clocks
Manual Data Entry
Many data acquisition systems provide users with a way to tag the data they are
accumulating, through some sort of manual data entry. They may wish to note such things
as the type of data,
Digital Buffer
The ability to record discrete events is often a requirement of a data acquisition system.
Since these events are usually accompanied by the opening or closing of a switch, they
25. represent a digital input. Out-of-tolerance conditions or some other situations that might
invalidate the data collection are most often designated as "discrete events."
Output Buffer
The output buffer acts as the data collector for the DAS. In an ordered sequence, it
gathers up such data as the multiplexer channel number, the signal conditioner gain, A/D
converter data, manual data, clock information, and discrete events. The buffer combines
the data with the proper format for entry into the recording or processing system. It
also provides the proper buffering and control to interface with the recording or
processing device.
If the processing device were a minicomputer, the output buffer might be called a
"peripheral controller."
Recording/Processing Device
A number of different equipment types can fill the role of the recording or processing
device. Some of the equipment types commonly used are paper tape punches, teleprinters
(TTY), magnetic tape units, line printers, cathode-ray tube displays, floppy disks, general-
purpose digital computers, and special-purpose digital processors.
In recent years, all these components of the data acquisition system have become more
automated; a typical block diagram can be seen in Figure 2 . All the major functions of
Figure 1 can be found. Clock information is supplied by the computer, and timing is
generated in the input/ output (I/O) controller.
Figure 2: More Automated version of DAS
26. This system configuration has two distinct advantages: first, on-line programmable
processing is possible; and second, a host of storage media is available. The rapid
expansion of the data acquisition field is directly attributable to the advent of low-cost
computer hardware, which makes systems like that of Figure 2 reality. Yet we should not
overlook the dotted-line box in the lower right-hand corner of that figure: Software can
easily become a more costly burden than the hardware.
Conclusion: Data Acquisition System can be used for acquiring physical or chemical or
position data in to system for analysis purpose.
27. Experiment No. 9
Aim: Build and test an electronic circuit on PCB.
Apparatus: Electronic circuit, electronic components, PCB , FERRIC CHLORIDE, butter
paper, drilling machine, soldering gun, soldering wire, flux
Theory:
Building and Electronic circuit on PCB:
How the electronic circuit (that you have chosen as a mini project) works?
What is the function of your mini project and its application?
How do you make a manual PCB lay out?
How do you transfer the PCB layout on PCB.
How do you carry out PCB etching?
Explain drilling, component mounting and soldering procedure.
How do you test your mini project?
Procedure: Choose a simple direct/IC- based electronic circuit as your mini project
Understand function of your electronic circuit.
Collect all required components and their data sheet.
Make a manual PCB layout.
Transfer this pattern on PCB.
Carry out etching using ferric chloride.
Carry out drilling using drilling machine.
Mount all components at their respective positions.
Solder components to complete the circuit.
Test your circuit and verify its function.
Conclusion: A electronic circuit was assembled on PCB. It was tested to verify its
function.
28. 3.Quiz on the subject:
1) How to design the transformer.
2) What are the steps to design fixed regulated power supply.
3) How to design variable regulated power supply.
4) What is an Instrumentation amplifier.
5) Explain active tone control circuit.
6) Explain Finite State Machine.
7) How to design audio power amplifier.
8) Which IC is used for counter & how to design.
9) What are the steps to design PCB.
10) What is the selection criteria for resistors and capacitors.
4. Conduction of VIVA-VOCE Examinations : -
Teacher should conduct oral exams of the students with full preparation. Normally the
objective questions with guess are to be avoided. To make it meaningful, the questions
should be such that depth of the student in the subject is tested. Oral Exams are to be
conducted in co-cordial situation. Teachers taking oral exams should not have ill thoughts
about each other & courtesies should be offered to each other in case of opinion, which
should be critically suppressed in front of the students.
5. Evaluation and marking system: -
Basic honesty in the evaluation and marking system is essential and in the process impartial
nature of the evaluator is required in the exam system. It is a primary responsibility of
the teacher to see that right students who really put their effort &intelligence are
correctly awarded.
The marking pattern should be justifiable to the students without any ambiguity and
teacher should see that students are faced with just circumstance.