F4.4.1 heat
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When two objects at different temperatures are placed in contact, heat flows from the hotter object to the colder object until they reach the same temperature and are in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium occurs when the net heat flow between the objects is zero, meaning they are the same temperature. A liquid-in-glass thermometer works by having mercury in a bulb expand up a capillary tube when heated; the distance it travels corresponds to temperature scales defined by fixed points like ice and steam. Mercury is suitable for thermometers because it conducts heat well and expands uniformly with temperature.
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F4.4.4 gas law
The document discusses three gas laws: Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Gay-Lussac's law.
Boyle's law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure and volume are inversely proportional if temperature is kept constant. Charles' law explains that for a fixed mass of gas, the volume and temperature are directly proportional if pressure is kept constant. Gay-Lussac's law provides that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure and temperature are directly proportional if volume is kept constant. Experiments are described that manipulate variables like volume, temperature, and pressure to demonstrate these relationships.
F4.4.3 heat
This document discusses specific latent heat, which is the amount of heat required to change the phase of a substance without changing its temperature. It provides examples of specific latent heat values for ice and water. During phase changes like melting, boiling, and condensing, heat is absorbed or released but temperature remains constant as the heat energy goes towards breaking or forming molecular bonds rather than increasing kinetic energy. Applications where specific latent heat is important include cooling drinks with ice and using steam for cooking or heating.
Force pressure n 3 principles
Forces in fluids are explained through concepts like pressure, which increases with depth underwater or elevation above sea level. Devices like hydraulic systems use confined fluids to multiply forces by changing piston sizes based on Pascal's principle. Archimedes' principle states that the buoyant force on an object submerged in a fluid equals the weight of the fluid displaced, determining whether it sinks or floats based on relative densities.
F4 ch2.9
When an object is in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on it is zero, and the object will either be at rest or moving with constant velocity. A resultant force represents the combined effect of two or more forces in magnitude and direction. Forces can be added by completing a parallelogram with the forces as the sides, and the diagonal of the parallelogram represents the resultant force. A single force can also be resolved into perpendicular horizontal and vertical components.
4.3 transistor
A transistor has three terminals - the emitter, base, and collector. There are two types of transistors - NPN and PNP. In an NPN transistor, the emitter sends electrons to the collector, while in a PNP transistor the emitter sends positive holes to the collector. The base current controls the collector current - a change in base current causes a larger change in collector current, allowing the transistor to function as an amplifier. The transistor can also function as an automatic switch, where no base current means no collector current (switch off), and base current flowing means collector current flows (switch on). A potential divider circuit with a variable resistor can be used to control the base voltage and switch the transistor on and
4.2 semiconductor diodes
A semiconductor diode allows current to flow in only one direction by taking advantage of the junction between n-type and p-type semiconductors. When forward biased, majority carriers can flow across the junction. When reversed biased, the depletion layer widens, blocking current. Diodes can be used as rectifiers to convert alternating current into pulsing direct current through half-wave or smooth direct current through full-wave rectification. A capacitor added to the output smoothes the pulsating direct current into a steady direct current voltage.
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F4.4.1 heat
- 4. Mechanism of Thermal Equilibrium Energy is transferred at a faster rate from the hotter object to the colder object. Energy is also transferred from the colder object to the hotter one, but at a slower rate. There is a net flow of energy from the hotter object to the colder object.
- 5. The hotter object cools down while the colder object warms up . After some time, energy is transferred at the same rate between the two objects. There is no net heat transfer between the objects. The two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
- 6. Thermal Equilibrium When two objects are in thermal equilibrium, there is no net flow of heat between them. Two objects in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature
- 7. Example of thermal equilibrium wet towel is placed on the forehead of a person who has high fever. Initially the temperature of the cloth is lower than the body temperature of the person. Heat energy is transferred from the forehead to the towel until thermal equilibrium is reached. The towel is rinsed in tap water and the procedure is repeated. In this way heat energy is removed from the person.
- 8. Cooling drinks A hot drink can be cooled by adding a few ice cubes to the drink. Heat from the hot drink is transferred to the colder ice until thermal equilibrium between the ice and water is reached. The final temperature of the drink equal the final temperature of ices.
- 10. The characteristic of the liquid used in liquid-in-glass thermometer 1. be easily seen 2. expand and contract rapidly over a wide range of temperature/ expand uniformly when heated 3. not stick to the glass wall of the capillary tube.
- 11. How a liquid-in-glass thermometer works? 1. The bulb of the thermometer contains a fixed mass of mercury. The volume of the mercury increases when it absorbs heat. 2. The mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube. The length of the mercury column in the capillary tube indicates the magnitude of the temperature.
- 12. How can a thermometer be calibrated? 1. A temperature scale is obtained by choosing two temperatures, called the fixed point. 2. Definition of ice point and steam point
- 14. When the two fixed points have been marked on the stem of the thermometer, the range between them is divided equally into 100 divisions or degrees. The thermometer now has a scale.
- 15. Working principle of a thermometer When the thermometer is placed in contact with hot water, heat is transferred from hot water to the thermometer. Thermal equilibrium between the thermometer and hot water is reached when the net rate of heat transfer is zero. The thermometer and the water are at the same temperature. At this point, the thermometer reading shows the temperature of the water.
- 16. characteristics of mercury that makes it suitable as a liquid-in-glass thermometer 1. It is a good conductor of heat 2. it has a high boiling point, 357°C 3. it expands uniformly when heated 4. it is opaque (does not allow light to pass through) and it can be seen easily. Mercury freezes at a temperature of - 39°C and it is therefore not suitable for measuring temperatures below this temperature, such at the north pole.
- 17. How to increase the sensitivity of a mercury thermometer? 1. Thin capillary tube 2. A glass bulb with thinner wall 3. Large bulb
- 18. THE END