The document discusses executive functions (EF), which are cognitive processes including planning, working memory, and attention, primarily coordinated by the prefrontal cortex. It outlines various models and theories of EF development, including historical perspectives and the impact of neurological development on cognitive functioning. The document also addresses interventions aimed at improving EF skills in children through tailored strategies and support.

1. EXECUTIVE
FUNCTION
Hashem Farhangdoost PhD in Cognitive Neuroscience
‫تخصصی‬‫کارگاه‬‫اجرایی‬‫عملکردهای‬‫توانبخشی‬
‫پاییز‬1396

2. Theoretical and Clinical Construct
◦ an umbrella term used for hypothesized cognitive processes,
◦ planning,
◦ working memory,
◦ attention,
◦ inhibition,
◦ self-monitoring,
◦ self-regulation,
◦ initiation
◦ carried out by prefrontal areas of the frontal lobes

3. Theoretical and Clinical Construct
◦ control mechanism was discussed as far back as the 1840s
◦ Phineas Gage
◦ destroyed a majority of his left frontal lobe
◦ disinhibited” or “hyperactive,”

4. Theoretical and Clinical Construct
◦ Donald Broadbent (1953) described differences between
◦ Automatic and controlled processes
◦ In 1975, Michael Posner coined the term “cognitive control”
◦ a branch of the attentional system responsible for focusing attention on selected
aspects of the environment
◦ Alan Baddeley proposed a model of working memory, “central executive”
◦ information to be manipulated in short-term memory.

5. Theoretical and Clinical Construct
◦ Lezak (1995) suggested that EF consisted of components related to
◦ volition
◦ planning
◦ purposeful action
◦ effective performance
◦ Reynolds and Horton ( 2006 ) suggested
◦ EFs are distinct from general knowledge
◦ executive functions : capacity to plan, to do things, and to perform adaptive actions,
◦ general knowledge : retention of an organized set of objective facts
◦ EF involves decision making, planning actions, and generating novel motor outputs adapted to external
demands

6. Theoretical and Clinical Construct
◦ Naglieri and Goldstein( 2013 ) executive function is
◦ best represented as a single phenomena,
◦ Conceptualized as the efficiency
◦ attention
◦ emotion regulation
◦ flexibility
◦ inhibitory control
◦ initiation
◦ organization
◦ planning
◦ self-monitoring
◦ working memory

7. Theoretical and Clinical Construct
◦Luria ( 1966 ):
◦ “…besides the disturbance of initiative and the other aforementioned behavioral
disturbances, almost all patients with a lesion of the frontal lobes have a marked
loss of their ‘critical faculty,’ i.e., a disturbance of their ability to correctly evaluate
their own behavior and the adequacy of their actions.”

8. Theoretical and Clinical Construct
◦Luria ( 1966 ):
◦ dysexecutive syndrome
◦ there must be some overarching system responsible for coordinating other cognitive
resources that appeared to be working inefficiently in patients with frontal lobe injuries
◦ the PFC as responsible for EF
◦ ACC
◦ DLPFC

9. The “Conductor Metaphor” meets the “Frontal Metaphor
Conductor
Orchestra

10. Broadbent’s model (bottleneck theory)
◦ Donald Broadbent’s (1953) model of automatic and controlled processes
◦ Filter model,
◦ a filter serves as a buffer
◦ selects information for conscious awareness
◦ When competing stimuli, the filter determines which information must be distinguished as
relevant or irrelevant

11. Broadbent’s model (bottleneck theory)
◦ information will pass through the filter (as relevant)
◦ remaining information is ignored (irrelevant)
◦ “sensory store” and “sensory filter” :
◦ instrument in which processing of stimuli occurs at the preattentive level,
◦ focusing on properties such as the sex of the speaker or type of sound
◦ the processing of information could be represented with parallel lines
◦ processing is then managed with the filter
◦ resembling a bottleneck

12. Cognitive Control Model
◦ Posner and Snyder ( 1975 )
◦ Cognitive control is needed to manage thoughts and emotions
◦ By cognitive control, Posner refers to processes that guide behaviors,
◦ analogous to working definitions of executive functioning today
◦ cognitive control : responsible in overwriting automatic responses,
◦ illustrating the selective nature of the model as well as the inhibitory nature
◦ cognitive control allows one to adapt from situation to situation depending
upon the goals of the individual

13. Automatic /Controlled processes
◦ Automatic processes
◦ effortless
◦ rapid
◦ unavailable to consciousness
◦ and unavoidable
◦ Permanent connections that are developed with practice or training
◦ Without a need for active attention or active control
◦ Controlled processes
◦ slow
◦ effortful
◦ completely conscious
◦ a temporary sequence of nodes activated under control of attention

14. A Developmental Perspective of EF
◦ development of EF can be found in the works of Luria ( 1963 , 1966 , 1973 )
◦ stages of higher cortical maturation
◦ optimal interaction of neurological development and environmental stimuli
◦ result in more efficient cortical functioning
◦ abilities such as language, attention, memory, intelligence, and EF

15. A Developmental Perspective of EF
◦ Luria proposed five stages of human development
◦ Stage One:
◦ begins in the first year of life and
◦ involves development of the brain stem structures such as the reticular activating system
◦ Stage Two: (sensation)
◦ involves the activation of the primary sensory areas for vision, hearing, and tactile
perception and the primary motor
◦ areas of gross motor movement during the second year of life
◦ This is consistent with Piaget’s stage of sensorimotor operations

16. A Developmental Perspective of EF
◦ Stage Three: (perception)
◦ involves development of single modalities in the secondary association areas
◦ children enter their preschool years
◦ The child’s mind recognized and reproduces various symbolic materials
◦ develops the ability to model physical movement
◦ consistent with Piaget’s concept of preoperational functioning

17. A Developmental Perspective of EF
◦ Stage Four: (imagination)
◦ begins as the child enters first or second grade (7–8 years of age)
◦ tertiary areas of the parietal lobes are activated
◦ The tertiary parietal lobes, the temporal parietal and occipital lobes join anatomically
and involve coordination of the three major sensory input channels
◦ the child’s mind begins to make sense of sensory input and environmental stimulation
◦ important for the development of complex mental abilities
◦ fits Piaget’s concept of concrete operations

18. A Developmental Perspective of EF
◦ Stage Five:
◦ the brain becomes activated
◦ beginning at approximately 8 years through adolescence and adulthood
◦ This operation involves the frontal lobes
◦ Is crucial to the development of complex mental abilities
◦ abstract thinking,
◦ intentional memory
◦ execution monitoring
◦ evaluating for complex learning
◦ fits Piaget’s concept of formal operations

19. A Developmental Perspective of EF
◦ The executive functions managed by the third functional unit,
◦ as described by Luria,
◦ regulate the attentional processes of the first functional unit
◦ first functional unit sustaining the appropriate level of arousal and vigilance necessary for
the detection of selection of relevant details from the environment
◦ Inhibitory behavior allows a child to resist or inhibit responding to saline by irrelevant details
during a task
◦ improves task performance
◦ Response inhibition allows the child to focus over time on task-relevant features

20. Functional Units
◦ Primary zone in the motor strip of frontal lobe being concerned
with motor output
◦ Secondary zone is responsible for
◦ the sequencing of motor activity
◦ speech production
◦ Tertiary zone is primarily involved with behaviors typically
described as executive function

21. Functional Units
◦ Damage to any of several areas of the frontal regions result in
difficulties with
◦ impulse control
◦ Learning from mistakes
◦ delay of gratification
◦ efficient attention

22. Functional Units
◦ The frontal lobe provide
◦ programming
◦ regulation
◦ evaluation of behavior
◦ enable the child to ask questions
◦ develop strategies
◦ self-monitor

23. Functional Units
◦ A reciprocal relationship exists between the first and third functional units
◦ The higher cortical systems both regulate and work in collaboration with the
first functional unit
◦ receiving and processing information from the external world
◦ determining an individual’s dynamic activity
◦ Ascending and descending systems of the reticular formation enable this
relationship by transmitting impulses from lower parts of the brain to the cortex
and vice versa
◦ damage to the prefrontal area alter this reciprocal relationship
◦ brain may not be sufficiently aroused for complex behaviors requiring sustained
attention

24. Functional Units
◦ damage to the prefrontal area alter this reciprocal relationship
◦ brain may not be sufficiently aroused for complex behaviors
requiring sustained attention
◦ “brain’s braking system
◦ right prefrontal cortex
◦ organs at the basal ganglia such as the substantia nigra
◦ cerebellum
◦ Humans are uniquely the only species capable of simultaneously
◦ thinking,
◦ Evaluating
◦ acting

28. Intervention
◦ Adherence
◦ the clinician’s implementation of procedures in a stable
manner over time,
◦ which can improve with consistent contact with other
individuals to discuss the treatment application process
◦ Adherence can be dependent on
◦ setting of the interventions: schools, clinics
◦ Functional levels of the client : more extreme deficits may require the
implementation of the same treatment protocol

29. Intervention
◦ Agent Competence
◦ the skill, experience, and/ or knowledge of the treatment agent
◦ Preservice training and in-service training

32. Intervention
◦ Consider the Child’s Developmental Level
◦ Environmental Modify cations May Include Altering
◦ the Physical or Social Environment
◦ the Task
◦ the Way Adults Interact with Children to Support Weak
Executive Skills
◦ Use Incentives to Augment Instruction

33. Intervention
◦ For tasks the child is not very good at, the approach to take is
◦ break them down into small steps and start with either the first
step and proceed forward or the last step and proceed
backward.
◦ No new step is added until mastery at the current step is
achieved

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