This document provides information about normal body temperatures, methods of measuring temperature, causes and patterns of fever, and the evaluation and management of fever. Some key points:
- Normal oral temperature is 36.8°C ± 0.4°C, with lower temperatures in the morning and higher in the afternoon. Maximum normal oral temperatures are 37.2°C in the morning and 37.7°C in the afternoon.
- Fever is defined as a temperature above the normal daily variation and occurs due to an increased hypothalamic set point in response to infection, inflammation, or other stimuli.
- Potential causes of fever include infections, inflammatory conditions, neoplasms, and certain drugs. Evaluation
Proper Case Presentation for Dengue Fever, Prevention, Treatment and everything else. Prepared by Dr Zain Khan, Doctor at Liaquat College of Medicine and Dentistry
Proper Case Presentation for Dengue Fever, Prevention, Treatment and everything else. Prepared by Dr Zain Khan, Doctor at Liaquat College of Medicine and Dentistry
Acute meningoencephalitis Powerpoint presentation.
It comprises of acute meningitis and acute encephalitis, their clinical features, physical assesment, diagnosis and treatment.
Brief Presentation on clinical examination of Respiratory System with Report of Normal case
references:
macleod's clinical examination 13th edition
hutchinson clinical methods
R Alagappan - Manual of Practical Medicine, 4th Edition
Acute meningoencephalitis Powerpoint presentation.
It comprises of acute meningitis and acute encephalitis, their clinical features, physical assesment, diagnosis and treatment.
Brief Presentation on clinical examination of Respiratory System with Report of Normal case
references:
macleod's clinical examination 13th edition
hutchinson clinical methods
R Alagappan - Manual of Practical Medicine, 4th Edition
Fever and Hyperthermia and Pyrexia of unknown origin by Dr Mohammad Hussien for Medical Student .
Ass.Lecturer of Hepatogastroentrology at Kafrelsheikh University.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
3. Mean oral temperature
36.8 ± 0.4 °C or 98.2 ± 0.7 °F
low levels at 6 A.M. and higher levels at 4 to 6 P.M.
Maximum normal oral temperature
37.2 ° C or 98.9 ° F at 6 A.M.
37.7 ° C or 99.9 ° F at 4 P.M.
Normal daily temperature variation
0.5 ° C or 0.9 ° F
Reference: Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th ed.
3
4. Oral temperature
Accurate and convenient
usually quoted at 37°C (98.6°F)
Place thermometer under tongue, then close
both lips
Mercury: 3-5 minutes ; Electric: 10 seconds
Reference: Bates’ Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking4
5. Axillary temperature
Reads 1°C lower than oral temperature
Takes 5-10 minutes to register
Lower accuracy
Place the thermometer under the armpit and
fold the arm across the chest to hold the
thermometer in place.
Reference: Bates’ Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking5
6. Rectal temperature
higher than oral temperatures by 0.4 to 0.5°C
patient lies on one side with the hip flexed
Select a rectal thermometer with a stubby tip,
use a lubricant, and insert it about 3-4 cm into
the anal canal for about 3 minutes
Reference: Bates’ Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking6
7. Tympanic Membrane temperature
measures core body temperature
higher than the normal oral temperature by 0.8°C
measure radiant heat energy from the tympanic
membrane and nearby ear canal
Position the probe in the canal and wait 2 to 3
seconds
7
8. Range °C
Hypothermia <36
Normal 37
Low Grade or Mild 38.2-39
Moderate or Average 39 – 40
High-Grade 40 – 41.5
Severe > 41.5
8
9. Fever
is an elevation of body temperature
that exceeds the normal daily
variation and occurs in conjunction
with an increase in the
hypothalamic set point.
a protective mechanism of the body
10. FEVER is a Diagnostic Clue
It is an essential host defense mechanism
Associated with or without localizing signs
It can be due to Infection, inflammation or neoplasm
11. Fever may not be present despite infection,
inflammation and neoplasm in:
Newborn
Elderly
Uremia
Significant malnourished
individual
Taking corticosteroids
12. INCREASE IN HYPOTHALAMIC
SETPOINT
Feeling of cold despite an
increase in body temperature
Vasoconstriction in hands and
feet
Shivering
Increase in heart rate &
muscle tone
(increases about 18 beats per
minute for each degree
Celsius increase in temp.)
Behavioral adjustments
17. Sustained (Continuous)
Fever:UTI,Pneumonia,Typhus,brucellosis
Intermittent Fever (Hectic
Fever);Malaria,Kalaazar,septicaemia..
Remittent Fever:IE
Relapsing Fever:
Tertian Fever;P.Vivax
Quartan Fever;P.Ovale,P.Malariae
Pel Ebstein Fever (Days of Fever Followed by a
Several Days Afebrile);Hodgkins Lymphoma
18.
19.
20. Infection,Inflammation and Neoplasm
Exogenous pyrogens: derived from outside an
individual and may include LPS and toxins.
Endogenous pyrogens: originating inside the body
and may include pyrogenic cytokines,IL-1, IL-6,
TNF.
Brain lesions
Compression of the hypothalamus by a brain
tumor.
Operations in the region of the hypothalamus
21. Below 97 degree F – Hypothermia
98.4 degree F - Normal
98 to 102 degree F – INFECTIONS
102 degree to 105 degree F – “NO MAN’S LAND”
106 degree and above – Non- infectious fever (Hyperpyrexia)
22. Heat production exceeds
heat loss, and the
temperature exceeds the
individuals set point
48. Assess the extent and severity of the
inflammatory response to infection
Determine the site(s) and complications
of organ involvement by the process
Determine the etiology of the infectious
disease
49. CBC (diff.)+ESR
Urine R/E
RBS
RFT and L.F.T.
PBS Routine / Malaria
Two Blood Cultures,10ml each in 30 min.
Interval from two different sites
CXR
U/A (in selected patients)
TFT (with caution and only when indicated)
57. PATHOGENEGIS
Contamination of the drug with a
pyrogen or microorganism
Pharmacologic action of the drug
itself
Allergic (hypersensitivity) reaction
to the drug
58. All drugs can produce Drug INDUCED fever except DIGOXIN
Bradycardia, hypotension, Skin rash, pruritus +,
Eosinophilia eg) pencillin, sulpha, ATT
59. Fever out of proportion to
clinical picture
Associated findings:
Rigor (43%), Myalgia (25%), Rash
(18%), Headache (18%),
Leukocytosis (22%), Eosinophilia
(22%), Serum sickness,Proteinuria
Abnormal liver function test
60. Onset and duration:
Onset: 1-3 weeks after the start of
therapy
Duration: remits 2-3 days after
therapy is stoped
62. Definition:
Fever of 38.3 C or higher on
several occasions
Fever of more than 3 weeks
duration
Diagnosis uncertain, despite
appropriate investigations after
at least 3 outpatient visits or at
least 3 days in hospital
63. Definition:
Fever of 38.3 or higher on
several occasions
Infection was not manifest or
incubating on admission
Failure to reach a diagnosis
despite 3 days of appropriate
investigation in hospitalized
patient
64. Definition:
Fever of 38.3 or higher on
several occasions
Neutrophil count is <500/mm3
or is expected to fall to that
level in 1 to 2 days
Failure to reach a diagnosis
despite 3 days of appropriate
investigation
65. Definition:
Fever of 38.3 or higher on
several occasions
Fever of more than 3 weeks for
outpatients or more than 3
days for hospitalized patients
with HIV infection
Failure to reach a diagnosis
despite 3days of appropriate
investigation
66. Infections 22-58%
Neoplasms up to 30%
Noninfectiouse
inflammatory diseases
up to 25%
Miscellaneous causes up to 25%
Undiagnosed up to 30%
71. Diagnosis should be considered in any FUO,
especially in:
Young women
Persons with medical training
If the patients clinically well
Disparity between temperature
and pulse
Absence of the normal diurnal
pattern
73. To lower the body temperature
To completely eradicate the pathogen
73
74. Most fevers are associated with self-limited
infections, most commonly of viral origin.
75. For each 1 °C elevation of body
temperature:
Metabolic rate increase 10-15%
Insensible water loss increase
300-500ml/m2/day
O2 consumption increase 13%
Heart rate increase 10-15/min
76. Reasons to treat fever:
The elderly individual with pulmonary or
cardiovascular disease
The patient at additional risk from the
hypercatabolic state (Poor nutrition,
Dehydration)
The young child with a history of febrile
convulsions
Toxic encephalopathy or delirium
Pregnant women (contraversy)
For the patient comfort
Hyperpyrexia
77. Reasons not to treat fever:
The growth and virulance of some organisms
Host defense-related response
Fever is an indicator of disease
Adverse effect of antipyretic drugs
Iatrogenic stress
Social benefits
78. Persons who are clinically unstable or are at
risk for rapid deterioration
Major alterations of immunity
Need for IV Antimicrobials or other fluids
Advanced age
79. Objectives of treating fever
reduce the elevated hypothalamic set point
facilitate heat loss
.
80. ANTIPYRETICSANTIPYRETICS
drugs that reduce fever
drugs that cause a lowering of the elevated
hypothalamic set point
The antipyretic potency of various drugs is
directly correlated with the inhibition of
brain cyclooxygenase.
81. Acetaminophen is generally a first-line antipyretic
due to being well tolerated with minimal side
effects.
Pediatric dose: 10-15mg/kg q4-6h (2400mg/day);
Adult dose: 650mg q 4 h(4000mg)
Can be hepatotoxic in high doses; can upset stomach
82. a poor cyclooxygenase inhibitor in peripheral
tissue and is without noteworthy anti-
inflammatory activity
oxidized by the p450 cytochrome system, and
the oxidized form inhibits cyclooxygenase
activity
the inhibition of another enzyme, COX-3
82
85. Use of antimicrobial therapy directed against
the pathogen
85
86. agents used to destroy or inhibit the growth of
other microorganisms
used to inactivate microbial cells
limit toxicity to the host and maximize
chemotherapeutic activity affecting invading
microbes only.
86
87. Selective toxicity
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
Β-lactams (Penicillin and Cephalosporin)
Vancomycin
Inhibition of cell membrane function
Polymyxins
Inhibition of protein synthesis
Macrolides
Chloramphenicol
Tetracycline
Aminoglycosides
Inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis
Rifampin
Metronidazole
87
88. Widespread sensitization of the population
Changes in the normal flora of the body
Masking serious infection without eradicating it
Direct drug toxicity
Development of drug resistance
88
89. ALL WE KNOW IS STILL INFINITELY
LESS THAN ALL THAT REMAINS UNKNOWN….
-WILLIAM HARVEY -
Editor's Notes
In a neutral environment, the metabolic rate of humans consistently produces more heat than is necessary to maintain the core body temperature at 37C. A normal body temperature is ordinarily maintained, despite environmental variations, because the hypothalamic thermoregulatory center balances the excess heat production derived from metabolic activity in muscle and the liver with heat dissipation from the skin and lungs. According to studies of healthy individuals 18 to 40 years of age, the mean oral temperature is 36.8 ± 0.4 °C or 98.2 ± 0.7 °F, with low levels at 6 A.M. and higher levels at 4 to 6 P.M.
The maximum normal oral temperature is 37.2 ° C or 98.9 ° F at 6 A.M. and 37.7 ° C or 99.9 ° F at 4 P.M.by; these values define the 99th percentile for healthy individuals. In light of these studies, an A.M. temperature of 37.2C (98.9F ) or a P.M. temperature of 37.7C (99.9F) would define a fever. The normal daily temperature variation is typically 0.5C (0.9F). However, in some individuals recovering from a febrile illness, this daily variation can be as great as 1.0C. During a febrile illness, diurnal variations are usually maintained but at higher levels.
oral temperature, usually quoted at 37°C (98.6°F), fluctuates considerably. In the early morning hours it may fall as low as 35.8°C (96.4°F), and in the late afternoon or evening it may rise as high as 37.3°C (99.1°F).
Rectal temperatures are higher than oral temperatures by an average of 0.4 to 0.5°C (0.7 to 0.9°F), but this difference is also quite variable. (In contrast, axillary temperatures are lower than oral temperatures by approximately 1 degree, but take 5 to 10 minutes to register and are generally considered less accurate than other measurements.)
Tympanic membrane temperature This method measures core body temperature, which is higher than the normal oral temperature by approximately 0.8°C (1.4°F).
oral temperature, usually quoted at 37°C (98.6°F), fluctuates considerably. In the early morning hours it may fall as low as 35.8°C (96.4°F), and in the late afternoon or evening it may rise as high as 37.3°C (99.1°F).
Rectal temperatures are higher than oral temperatures by an average of 0.4 to 0.5°C (0.7 to 0.9°F), but this difference is also quite variable. (In contrast, axillary temperatures are lower than oral temperatures by approximately 1 degree, but take 5 to 10 minutes to register and are generally considered less accurate than other measurements.)
Tympanic membrane temperature This method measures core body temperature, which is higher than the normal oral temperature by approximately 0.8°C (1.4°F).
oral temperature, usually quoted at 37°C (98.6°F), fluctuates considerably. In the early morning hours it may fall as low as 35.8°C (96.4°F), and in the late afternoon or evening it may rise as high as 37.3°C (99.1°F).
Rectal temperatures are higher than oral temperatures by an average of 0.4 to 0.5°C (0.7 to 0.9°F), but this difference is also quite variable. (In contrast, axillary temperatures are lower than oral temperatures by approximately 1 degree, but take 5 to 10 minutes to register and are generally considered less accurate than other measurements.)
Tympanic membrane temperature This method measures core body temperature, which is higher than the normal oral temperature by approximately 0.8°C (1.4°F).
oral temperature, usually quoted at 37°C (98.6°F), fluctuates considerably. In the early morning hours it may fall as low as 35.8°C (96.4°F), and in the late afternoon or evening it may rise as high as 37.3°C (99.1°F).
Rectal temperatures are higher than oral temperatures by an average of 0.4 to 0.5°C (0.7 to 0.9°F), but this difference is also quite variable. (In contrast, axillary temperatures are lower than oral temperatures by approximately 1 degree, but take 5 to 10 minutes to register and are generally considered less accurate than other measurements.)
Tympanic membrane temperature This method measures core body temperature, which is higher than the normal oral temperature by approximately 0.8°C (1.4°F).
In the first stage of fever also known as the invasion period the patient will experience chill, loss of appetite, and headache. Chill occurs, occurs because of the tightening of blood vessels near the skin.
In the next stage, the body is hot and flushed, the skin dry, and the pulse and respiration are rapid. The patient will experience thirst and he/she will feel restless. In high fever, delirium and convulsions may occur.
In the final stage before returning to normal, the temperature falls, breathing and pulse slow down, and the skin becomes moist. The patient often sweats.
Body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus. Neurons in both the preoptic anterior hypothalamus and the posterior hypothalamus receive two kinds of signals: one from peripheral nerves that reflect warmth/cold receptors and the other from the temperature of the blood bathing the region. These two types of signals are integrated by the thermoregulatory center of the hypothalamus to maintain normal temperature.
Chills: When the set-point of the hypothalamic temperature-control center is suddenly changed from the normal level to higher than normal (as a result of tissue destruction, pyrogenic substances, or dehydration), the body temperature usually takes several hours to reach the new temperature set-point. The graph shows this, demonstrating the effect of suddenly increasing the set-point to a level of 39°C. Because the blood temperature is now lower than the set-point of the hypothalamic temperature controller, the usual responses tat cause elevation of body temperature occur.
During this period, the person experiences chills and feels extremely cold, even though his or her body temperature may already be above normal.
The skin becomes cold because of vasoconstriction (shunting of blood away from the periphery to the internal organs – decreases heat loss from the skin), and the person shivers.
Also, behavioral adjustments, such as adding more clothing, help increase the body temperature by decreasing heat loss.
Chills can continue until the body temperature reaches the hypothalamic set-point. Then the person no longer experiences chills but instead feels neither cold nor hot. As long as the factor that is causing the hypothalamic temperature controller to be set at this high set-point value continues, the body temperature is regulated more or less in the normal manner – but at the high temperature set-point level.
The Crisis, or “Flush”: If the factor that is causing the high temperature is suddenly removed, the set-point of the hypothalamic temperature controller is suddenly reduced to a lower value – perhaps even back to the normal level, as shown in the graph. In this instance, the body temperature is still 39°C but the hypothalamus is attempting to regulate the temperature to 37°C.
This situation is analogous to excessive heating of the anterior hypothalamic – preoptic area, which causes intense sweating and sudden development of hot skin because of vasodilatation everywhere. This sudden change of events in a febrile state is known as the “crisis” or, more appropriately, the “flush”.
In the days before the advent of antibiotics, the crisis was always awaited because once this occurred, the doctor assumed that the patient’s temperature would soon be falling.
In order for fever to occur, certain requirements must be met. To start things off, pyrogens need to be present. Pyrogens as defined is any substance that causes a fever.
There are 2 types exogenous and endogenous
Exogenous pyrogens are derived form outside the patient; most are microbial products, microbial toxins or whole microorganisms.
Endogenous pyrogens are cytokines termed as pyrogenic cytokines. Cytokines are small proteins that regulate immune, inflammatory and hematopoietic processes. The known pyrogenic cytokines are IL1 IL6 TNF and IFN
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Infection and microbial agents stimulate monocytes, neutrophils and lymphocytes and other cells that produce pyrogenic cytokines namely, IL1 IL6 TNF and IFN
These pyrogenic cytokines are then released into the circulation and reaches the hypothalamic endothelium wherein production of PGE2 in the brain is induced thus starting the process of raising the hypothalamic set point for core temperature.
The PGE2 in the brain then stimulates the rapid release of cAMP from glial cells,
this release then induces the release of neurotransmitters that change the thermoregulatory set point in the hypothalamus.
Simultaneously, microbial toxins present in the circulation also stimulates specific receptors in the hypothalamic endothelium called toll-like receptors. The direct activation of these receptors also results in PGE2 production and fever.
These events then lead to increased body heat content and fever
Continuous fever
A fever with a diurnal variation of 0.5 to 1.0°C.
Temperature elevation often sustained throughout the day and remains almost at a constant reading with minimal fluctuations.
persistently elevated body temperature, showing no or little variation and never falling to normal during any 24-hour period.
Temperature remains above normal throughout the day and does not fluctuate more than 1 °C in 24 hours, e.g. lobar pneumonia, typhoid, urinary tract infection, brucellosis, or typhus. Typhoid fever may show a specific fever pattern, with a slow stepwise increase and a high plateau.
temperature remains above normal for long period of time.
Daily elevated temperature (&gt;38 C or 100.4 F)Fluctuation of elevated temperature &lt; 0.3 C (0.5 F)
Associated conditions: Drug Fever and Salmonella
Remittent fever
A fever with a diurnal variation of more than 1.1°C but with no normal readings
There is a wide range of fluctuations within the aforementioned range and is occurring over the 24 hour period.
shows significant variations in 24 hours but without return to normal temperature.
elevated body temperature showing fluctuation each day, but never falling to normal.
Daily elevated temperature (&gt;38 C or 100.4 F)
Returns to baseline but not to normal
Intermittent fever
These are episodes of fever separated by days of normal temperature
with recurring fever episodes separated by times of normal temperature.
an attack of fever, with recurring paroxysms of elevated temperature separated by intervals during which the temperature is normal.
Elevated temperature is present only for some hours of the day and becomes normal for remaining hours, e.g. malaria, kala-azar, pyaemia, or septicemia. In malaria, there may be a fever with a periodicity of 24 hours (quotidian), 48 hours (tertian fever), or 72 hours (quartan fever, indicating Plasmodium malariae). These patterns may be less clear in travelers.
Temperature remains above normal throughout the day and fluctuates more than 1 °C in 24 hours, e.g. infective endocarditis.
Intermittently elevated temperature (&gt;38 C, 100.4 F)
Return to baseline and to normal
Relapsing fever (under intermittent fever)
These are bouts of fever occurring every 5 to 7 days.
manifested in malaria cases
marked by alternating periods of fever and apyrexia, each lasting from five to seven days.
type that recurs sometimes a number of times, several days after the temperature has returned to normal.
Episodic fever
Is a fever lasts for days or longer followed by prolonged periods (at least 2 weeks) without fever and with remission of clinical illness
Pel-epstein fever (under intermittent fever)
Bouts of several days of continuous or remittent fever followed by afebrile remissions lasting an irregular number of days
Occurs in Hodgkin’s disease
A specific kind of fever associated with Hodgkin&apos;s lymphoma, being high for one week and low for the next week and so on. However, there is some debate as to whether this pattern truly exists
The objectives in treating fever are first to reduce the elevated hypothalamic set point and second to facilitate heat loss. There is no evidence that fever itself facilitates the recovery from infection or acts as an adjuvant to the immune system. In fact, peripheral PGE2 production is a potent immunosuppressant. Hence, treating fever and its symptoms does no harm and does not slow the resolution of common viral and bacterial infections. Reducing fever with antipyretics also reduces systemic symptoms of headache, myalgias, and arthralgias.
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs) such as indomethacin and ibuprofen are also excellent antipyretics. As effective antipyretics, glucocorticoids act at two levels. First, similar to the cyclooxygenase inhibitors, glucocorticoids reduce PGE2 synthesis by inhibiting the activity of phospholipase A2, which is needed to release arachidonic acid from the cell membrane. Second, glucocorticoids block the transcription of the mRNA for the pyrogenic cytokines.