Evaluating The Theoretical And Or Methodological Approach...

Evaluating The Theoretical And Or Methodological Approach...
Critically evaluate the theoretical and/or methodological approach of an article, chapter or book
considered on the module.
'Gender Myths and Feminist Fables: The Struggle for Interpretive Power in Gender and
Development' is a piece of work that begins to unpick the issue of myths within gender and
development. Cornwall et al examine how myths have a twofold nature– they can at once be both
useful and problematic in their creation and in how they are interpreted into policy use by
developmental agencies. The article explores the uneasy space in which these myths are
appropriated into processes, and how certain myths become embedded in developmental practise
whilst others are cast aside because of the power differentials within ... Show more content on
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The essay will conclude that this article is useful in thinking about how myths (and language) need
to be addressed in order to achieve the important goal of shifting power dynamics, both within the
real world and the development sector itself, to bring about real change for women and girls
globally.
The power and importance of the generation of myths is at the heart of 'Gender myths and feminist
fables'. The article is inspired by the 'frustration ' within the development sector with these myths
and highlights how ideas and representations of women, often initially based on feminist research,
become translated through development language into myths. These myths are then appropriated
into 'simplistic slogans'– a variety of catchphrases coined by different NGOs, institutions and
government campaigns that reduce the plight of women to a few buzzwords. The researchers put
some focus on the beneficial and unifying nature of myths within development. Cornwall et al
harness the works of Albert Hirschmann and Georges Sorel to demonstrate that myths are an integral
part of development because they have 'the power to move '– i.e. in a practical sense, myths are able
to capture the heart of the public and ensure support is pledged to aid agencies. Myths are important,
because they act as agents for change– 'encoding 'truths' in narratives that nourish and sustain
convictions ' both for development
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Appraising The Methodological Vayor In Qualitative...
Qualitative research methodology is a communal approach in evidence based practice and nursing
practice. Methodological rigor in appraising a qualitative research approach is an inevitable piece, it
makes qualitative evidence reliable, honest and believable or in other words trustworthy. In
qualitative research where rigor is used one can clearly note consistency, credibility and in–depth
quality (Mcbrien, 2008). Methodological rigor is a necessary backbone for qualitative research, it
should not be ignored or omitted during critically appraising qualitative evidence. Four major
criteria used in appraising the methodological rigor include Member–checking, peer debriefing,
reflexivity and audit trails (Mcbrien, 2008). In general, Qualitative

The Methodology Of Robert Putnam 's Making Democracy Work...
Introduction This paper will critically evaluate the methodology used in Robert Putnam's Making
Democracy Work. By relying on what the methodological arguments that were taught this semester,
this paper will discuss and evaluate in detail the various methodological strategies employed by the
author. For the 'Theory' theme, this paper will examine casual mechanisms (and methodological
individualism) topic, closely referencing the course reading Social Mechanisms by Peter Hedstrom
and Richard Swedbeg. Next, for the 'Measurement and Data' theme, this paper will specifically
examine the measurement validity and reliability topic, and will closely reference "Measurement
validity: A Shared Standard for qualitative and Quantitative Research" by Robert Adcock and David
Colllier. Finally, for the 'Testing Theory with Data Theory', this paper will be examining the history
as an explanation topic, closely referencing "The Study of Critical Junctures: Theory, Narrative and
Counterfactuals in Historical Intuitionalism" by Giovanni Capoccia and Daniel Kelemen, as well as
the relevant topic, Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods. The paper will start by summarizing the
readings relevant to the topics of the themes, then delve into the pertinent methodology in Putnam's
book. Theory Casual mechanisms; methodological individualism For this paper, I will be examining
Peter Hedstrom and Richard Swedberg's contribution to the literature on Social Mechanisms, and
review the more salient

Justification For A Qualitative Methodological Approach
3.0 Introduction
Following a critical overview of the literature, this chapter outlines the research methodology. It will
provide a justification for a qualitative methodological approach and specification of methods
employed. Highlighting the appropriateness of interviews and focus groups in relation to the
methodology and overall research. It will also provide recognition of their relative strengths and
limitations.
3.1 Methodology/Methodological approach
Research methodology and methodological approaches that is, the structured process of conducting
research and the overall concepts and theories which underpin research respectively (Bryman,
2008), occupy a central position in the research process as they are both shaped by and translate the
researcher's epistemological position. Epistemology then refers to a researcher's philosophical stance
about the nature, derivation and scope of knowledge (Gilbert, 2008). These positions are seldom
'spelt out' but rather understood in the matter of research methodology and approach (Sarantakos,
2005).
As this research is exploratory in nature that is, it sought to explore and examine decision–making,
morality and 'sense–making' amongst human participants I was naturally orientated towards an
interpretivist epistemological position. The central thesis of interpretivism is that knowledge, its
origin and interpretation is founded on human subjectivities and as such complemented my own
world view that knowledge is indeed

Mixed Methods Critique
The use of mixed methods is currently increasing in social science research since it emphasizes
methodological pluralism, and provides a broader and more credible understanding of the research
problem than the use of a single method (Tashakkori and Teddlie 2010). However, mixing methods
for no good reason other than the sake of it can produce disjointed and unfocussed research, and can
severely test the capabilities of researchers. I raise some cautionary issues in this paper by critiquing
the methodology in the journal article titled "Researching men: the politics and possibilities of a
qualitative mixed–methods approach" published by Meth and McClymont (2011).
Meth and McClymont (2011) explores the possibility and politics of using ... Show more content on
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The authors focused on justifying 'mixed methods' in its entirety and ignored justifying the use of
each specific method used.
Another point of critique is the sampling of the research participants. Meth and McClymont (2011)
make a lot of sampling choices without explaining or justifying those choices. First they selected 20
men in the South African city of Durban but did not reveal the rationale for such selection. Obvious
questions in this sampling choice are: why men and not women? Why 20 men and not 5, 50, or 100?
Why the South African city of Durban? Apparently, they explained why they selected an informal
settlement (Cato Crest) by indicating that the settlement have high incidence of violence (page,
911), and ignored justifying the selection of South African city of Durban.
Regarding the research participants, even though the authors claim to use 20 male participants in
their research, the entire paper centers on the stories and experiences of a single participant (a man
called Sakhile). This raises questions of representation even within the 20 men selected. In
discussing the use of visual images, the researches asked Sakhile to take twelve images illustrating
his experience of violence (page 916). Again the question that arises is: why 12 images? The
methodological error is rooted not in the selections per say, but in the failure to justify such
selections.
Finally, the ethics of research were not thoroughly considered in the

Qualitative Research In Health Care
This article provides information about the generic qualitative research studies which is used in
studying the health services. This approach rejects the use of single method or established
methodologies. It is a significant controversial approach among qualitative researchers because of
ill–defined and less–established structures.
The author reveals his perception on the generic qualitative research by defining it as a new group of
qualitative studies "which combines the different methodological approaches" or "which does not
have any methodological viewpoint". From my opinion, if methodologies are combined and the
distinct features of the methodology still existing in the study's framework, we can put this study
under the category of multiple or mixed methods research. Moreover, I think we cannot design a
new research framework without traditional methodological viewpoint and philosophic assumptions.
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Currently, there is no methodological or theoretical framework for this approach. Consequently,
positions of philosophies, methodologies and the rigour of this research method are disputed among
scholars and researchers. On the other hand, we are engaging health service research activities in
collective qualitative process to address the wide range of social and clinical issues as per suggested
by Devers. Overreliance on the criteria within single methodological boundary makes the study's
outcomes deviating from its original research aims and questions. Currently, generative qualitative
research provides opportunities to the research questions to encompass the choice of methodologies
and methods because of its high flexibility. I have a concern that setting the quality criteria may
threaten the flexibility and applicability of the generic qualitative research in health

Comparing Weber's and Durkheim's Methodological...
Comparing Weber's and Durkheim's Methodological Contributions to Sociology
This essay will be examining the methodological contributions both Durkheim and Weber have
provided to sociology. It will briefly observe what Positivists are and how their methodologies
influence and affect their research. It will also consider what interpretative sociology is, and why
their type of methodology is used when carrying out research. It will analyse both Durkheim's study
of Suicide and also Webers study of The Protestant work ethic, and hopefully establish how each
methodology was used for each particular piece of research, and why.
Emile Durkhiem, in sociology terminology is considered to be a ... Show more content on
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Classical Social Theory. 1997:26)
Max Weber, born in 1868 in Germany, was the son of a Lawyer and was brought up in a household
where Religon played a major role in his life. After attending Heidelberg University, he completed
his first "Sociological" work on "The Situation of Farm Workers in Germany". From around 1903,
he completed most of his Sociological writings, this included the famous "Protestant work ethic and
the Spirit of Capitalism". Weber even taught himself Russian, in order for him to observe and study
the Russian Revolution. This was, in itself putting 'Verstehen' into practice. Something which many
Sociologists, especially Positivists such as Comte, disagreed about. Verstehen is when you imagine
yourself to be in the position of the person or people who's behaviour you are wishing to explain.
Weber famously defined the term "Sociology" as a science which attempts the interpretive
understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and
effects. In "action" is included all human behaviour when and insofar as the acting individual
attaches a subjective meaning to it. Action in this sense may be either obvious or purely hidden or

Methodological Variations of Facial Expressions With...
Methodological variations of facial expressions with patients suffering from the disease of
depression Introduction The article is a review which was written by Cecilia Bourke, Katie Douglas
and Richard Porter. It was published in the year 2010 in the 44th volume of the Australian and New
Zealand Journal of Psychiatry from pages 681 to 696. The research was on the processing of facial
expressions of emotion in human beings when faced with depression. The article is a review of
several studies on these topics which have employed a wide range of methods to investigate the
abnormal processing of facial expression in the face of major depression. This review was written
with the aim of examining and interpreting data from these studies while evaluating their
methodology and results(Bourke, Douglas, & Porter, 2010). Hypotheses One hypothesis of the study
is that a mood–congruent impairment of the processing of their facial emotion when faced with
major depression in which the impaired emotions that are processed and involves those who are
most relevant to the depression which are happiness and sadness. A second hypothesis that comes
about is that there is a bias of attention away from the positive and towards the negative facial
expressions. A third hypothesis is that of the potential identification or bias towards the emotions
that are related to threat which include fear and anger. Another hypothesis that comes about is that
there is over–activity of the more primitive

Methodological Process Of An Explorative Process
Over the course of developing this audiovisual project my own curiosity of the obscure and
unknown has driven much of the research, and throughout the practical investigation often directed
my creative decision making. Throughout my enquiry, I became more aware of my own
methodological process forming as I acquired new knowledge and understanding of the subject
matter that informed my research. While early and iterative in nature it became noticeably
consistent; illustrated by the following diagram. (Riel, 2006) To begin the explorative process, I
generated a mind map (seen below). This was the first step in planning my enquiry, effective in
laying out what I was attracted to visually and thematically. This would become increasingly ...
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These early experimentations were effective in outlining that although both components (audio and
visual) reflected each other, they remained separate and inanimate. In order to fully explore the data
sets, it was important that I found a way to perceive the union of the components in this project in an
animated, audiovisual format.
While the content of an artwork is crucial to its final outcome, the importance of input and process
is often overlooked when new technology is so visually enticing for today's digital artists. his project
is unique in that it uses binary data obtained from a scientific source, to transcend and explore the
dimensional value of that data in the audiovisual medium.
I examined the input data that was going to be used more closely, understanding the importance that
the data had relevant to my own enquiry and by extension, the perceptive curiosity of the audience.
Acknowledging scientific data as being a representation of nature or reality, this project explores
how we can physically relate to a part of it through waves of light and sound. It seemed appropriate
then, to source data that was complimentary of my passion for the cosmos.
The most accessible and substantial online deposits of scientific data was CARISMA (Canadian
Array for Realtime Investigations of Magnetic Activity). The CARISMA data tree provided large
amounts of raw electromagnetic data organised by date; recordings of the

Characteristics Of The Methodological Approach And Data...
3.1 Chapter Overview
In order to test the hypotheses and answer the questions of the research, a convenient research
methodology was chosen. A description of the characteristics of the methodological approach and
data collection technique is provided in this chapter.
3.2 Research Design
Burns and Grove (2003) define a research design as a blueprint for conducting a study with
maximum control over factors that may interfere with the validity of the findings. Depending on the
objectives of research, research projects can be grouped into three types: exploratory, descriptive,
and explanatory. Exploratory research tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous
research has been done (Brown, 2006). Descriptive research is used to justify current practices and
identify factors that hinder or enhance practice as one gets a whole picture from the informants
(Burns & Grove, 2003). Explanatory research attempts to go above and beyond what exploratory
and descriptive research to identify the actual reasons a phenomenon occurs, it attempts to "connect
the dots" in research, by identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon
(Bhattacherjee, 2012).
This thesis attempts to contribute towards developing a framework that will eventually be useful to
increase the competencies of project management in the construction sector. In order to reach this
purpose, an exploratory research inquiry was used to identify and analyze best practices related to
innovation in

The Methodological Base Of Cybernetic Reasoning
Much of the methodological base of cybernetic reasoning was developed during World War Two.
Work conducted on three grand engineering projects, rockets, radar, and the atomic bomb – involved
a cybernetic worldview. Norbert Wiener's advancements in radar and automated air defense were
particularly influential. The 'black box' style of reasoning in cybernetics, which treated systems as
defined by their inputs and outputs, came to prominence in other fields after the end of the Second
World War. The founders of Simulmatics were elsewhere during World War Two. Ithiel Pool was not
working on military defense projects. He, and many other Simulmatics affiliates, were instead
working towards psychological defense of the homeland. Pool worked for the Experimental
Division for the Study of War Time Communications, a secret research group working under the
Department of War. Pool, and other communications theorists, most notably Harold Lasswell, was
initially tasked with developing an automatic translator. When machine translation proved
untenable, Pool and his colleagues moved on to other applications of the text analysis techniques
they had developed for machine translation. The division developed quantitative content analysis
techniques that could, using statistical reasoning, determine whether or not a domestic publication
was serving as Nazi propaganda. Tracking the prevalence of symbols (words and phrases associated
with subterfuge, insurgency, and Nazism), could,

Standardization in International Marketing Strategy Is...
Standardization in International Marketing Strategy is doomed to failure: Literature review and
methodological critique. The literature on standardization of international marketing strategy has
rapidly increased in amount since Levitt (1983) suggested the main concept that business strategies
and their influences on firm performance should be universal through national markets which are
very much alike culturally, economically and politically, in spite of limited empirical evidence
focused directly on this topic. He pointed out that world markets are becoming more and more
identical and therefore a standardized approach to company operations, productions, marketing and
other functions is feasible and advisable. This review focuses ... Show more content on
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The academics observe that their work is boundless but full of contradictory findings. Also, it is not
obvious how to extract 'best evidence' for use by management practitioners. Their systematic review
is based on a detailed quantitative meta–analysis of accessible data from two databases namely
EBSCO and ABI Inform. They tested 84 articles for making a systematic review, which finally
concluded that only 5% of the articles primarily relied on qualitative research methodologies. The
authors summarize the evidence of contextual factors and the influence on standardization, and
propose a four–step process to develop management practitioners' own solution concepts. The idea
of conceptualization of all factors of marketing process influenced standardization in the different
ways was developed by Jain in 1989 either. Firstly, the academic mentioned that many papers were
written lately on globalization of marketing although we still do not have any conclusive theory or
practice. In an attempt to constitute a research agenda on the standardization question, the author
developed 13 research propositions for each factor. Due to empirical disclosure demanded a
theoretical base, the paper of this publisher aimed to create a standard for making standardization
decisions by evolving synthesis of theoretical and empirical works in marketing management,
international business, and strategic planning. A proposed framework in this paper has been lacking
of

Essay On In Vitro Studies
Discussion:
In–vitro studies are considered as a preclinical research and of important significance, as before
carrying out clinical trials, the safety and effectiveness of new drugs are examined In–vitro first.
However, unlike clinical studies on humans, preclinical studies are far enough, by 2002, the lancet
outlined a scientific rational for conducting SRs on animal studies, after that, manny SR and meta–
analysis of in–vitro studies were published(1) Including studies discussing the modeling of
cerebrovascular disease(2)
So like SR and Meta–analysis on humans, the quality assessment and risk of bias in SR and meta–
analysis of in–vitro studies needs to be tested and examined. (1)
Empirical evidence reports that too many ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
we will invite the 65 corresponding authors of our systematic review, some international researchers
who are experts in QA, have an interest in experimental studies, and journal editors who are
interested in publishing SR of in–vitro studies.
By using email survey or Survey website, we will conduct a two to four rounds of sending,
receiving, modify and resend again.
The objective of the first round is that the panelists will show their opinion about the items included
in the initial checklist, rank the importance of each criterion included and suggest new items if
needed.
In the second round, we will receive their feedback on the results of the first round, re–rank the
importance of the criteria which did not reach a 70% consensus of inclusion or exclusion, and
indicate the importance of the proposed criteria during the first round.
The third round, to further refine the checklist, whether excluding any less important criterion or re–
including any of the excluded criteria in the checklist.
The fourth round, to review the final checklist and recommend for further improvement(4).And
third, a pilot test of the new tool, using a random sample as a pilot from the included studies of our
systematic review (5) sending emails with the new tool as a survey to the collected authors of
experience of in vitro studies, know their comments and

Misconceptions on Learner Autonomy: a Methodological and...
EKEV AKADEMİ DERGİSİ Yıl: 14 Sayı: 43 (Bahar 2010)
141
MISCONCEPTIONS ON LEARNER AUTONOMY: A METHODOLOGICAL AND
CONCEPTUAL RENEWAL
Asuman AŞIK (*)
Abstract Learner autonomy emerges as the result of many methodological innovations in
second/foreign language teaching over the last dec1ades, especially in communicative language
teaching and learner–centered approaches. As the learner has become the center of the foreign
language teaching, autonomy has been attributed to the learner as one of the essential capabilities
that a learner should have. Learners are the ones who are in charge of learning. To motivate learners
in language education can happen only if the learners can learn on their own as well as the
cooperation with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Without institutionalised teaching, a human being can learn many issues through his/her life.
Children may learn through observing or experiencing other children, adults or their parents.
Without forcing someone to learn something, a person can learn so many things in life if s/he wants
to learn. The term 'autonomy' starts to be used within language teaching due to those innovations in
foreign language teaching. Learner autonomy, in its broadest sense, puts the learner at the focal
point of all attention and it endows him/her with responsibility for his/her actions. Each student can
learn himself/herself. No one can learn anything for somebody else. Thus, each learner should have
the responsibility for his/her learning if s/he really wants to learn. For the last three decades the
significance of autonomy in language teaching has been discussed a lot. However, 'autonomy' may
be confused in terms of its definitions, its characteristics and its implementetation in
teaching/learning process with so many other terms. There has been many attempts to relate
autonomy with self–access learning, individualized learning or self–directed learning etc. Autonomy
should not be misinterpreted by relating it through other concepts that put the learner into
foreground in language teaching/learning process or as for its implementation it should not be
applied as the learning without a teacher or learning outside

Methodological Issues in Educational Research: A Review of...
Methodological Issues in Educational Research: A Review of Two Articles
Article One: Qualitative Research on Educational Technology: Philosophies, Methods and
Challenges
Summary
The author of this article claims that empirical research in education is hindered by the fact that
"researchers cannot produce generalizations fast enough to adapt the instructional treatments to the
myriad of variables inherent in any given context of instruction" (p. 2–3). Philosophical assumptions
with regard to epistemology and ontology greatly influence instructional strategies and methods.
Four philosophical perspectives are reviewed: objectivism and realism, idealism and rationalism,
relativism, and pragmatism. The article goes on to discuss the use of three qualitative methods used
in the field of educational technology research: ethnography, case study, and designed based.
The author asserts that unlike other fields a rigorous qualitative study in educational technology is
loosely defined. Data is often collected from a short period of time and identities of race, gender,
class, and culture of both students and teachers are frequently absent. However, the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) has proposed a set of criteria conducting
qualitative research in the field of educational technology in order to increase rigor, validity, and
social relevance.
Value of Article Regarding Educational Research Practice The inherent problems of qualitative

Curanderismo: A Phenomenological Methodological Study
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to use a phenomenological methodological approach to
understand the historical and sociocultural elements of Curanderismo. This study was also looking
to discover how Curanderismo are used for treatment of mental health disorders.
Data Source: This study interviewed 8 curanderos in the southwest part of the United States. The
research team was composed of four people, two of which were the authors of this study and two
who were researchers. The first author was a bilingual, Mexican–American and the second author
was a Venezuelan–born clinician and researcher. The other two members were psychologists that
were experienced in dealing with qualitative research methods, such as the phenomenological ...
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One of these weaknesses is that the sample size was extremely small. Only using eight curanderos
doesn't accurately represent an entire population. In order for them to have a complete
understanding on the questions that were proposed, they would need to increase the sample size. A
second weakness was that the researchers found these curanderos through word of mouth of each
other. They chose one curandero to start the study, and got others from them. This creates a
weakness because this is considered a sampling bias. Finally, another weakness that was apparent
was that the questions were more focused on the history and methods they use for general illnesses,
not for mental health, which was what the study was about.
Strengths: This study had few strengths. The major strength in this study was that they used open–
ended questions when asking the participants. This allowed the participants to explain in as much
detail as they wanted. This was helpful for the study because it gave the research a vast amount of
data to work with. It helped them find the major tenets, major practices, and their worldview.
Another strength was that they allowed to participants to answer in either Spanish or English,
whichever they were more comfortable with. This allowed the participants to answer the questions
with

Exploring Methodological Individualism Essay
Exploring Methodological Individualism
ABSTRACT: I defend the truth of the principle of methodological individualism in the social
sciences. I do so by criticizing mistaken ideas about the relation between individual people and
social entities held by earlier defenders of the principle. I argue, first, that social science is
committed to the intentional stance; the domain of social science, therefore, coincides with the
domain of intentionally described human action. Second, I argue that social entitites are theoretical
terms, but quite different from the entities used in the natural sciences to explain our empirical
evidence. Social entities (such as institutions) are conventional and open–ended constructions, the
applications of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
38). Popper used the term for "the quite unassailable doctrine that we must try to understand all
collective phenomena as due to the actions, interactions, aims, hopes, and thoughts of individual
men, and as due to traditions created and preserved by individual men" (1944/45, pp. 157–158). The
issue of the principle's truth was hotly debated in the 1950s, thanks especially to its champion John
Watkins, a student of Popper. Since then, arguments defending or attacking methodological
individualism occasionally appear in the literature, but the contestants seem to hold on to their initial
lines of trenches. Believers express difficulty in understanding how anyone could fail to see that the
principle of methodological individualism is correct. Unbelievers aim to show that there always
remain 'inherently social' or 'irreducibly social' aspects that a methodological individualist will find
impossible to account for in terms of the principle.
The title of my paper reveals my own position. I am a believer. I think methodological individualism
is indeed correct, in a strong sense that makes it go beyond a strictly methodological principle. By
this I mean that I subscribe to both explanatory individualism and conceptual individualism, as these
different forms are distinguished by Tuomela (1984, 1995), although similar distinctions were
already introduced during the 1950s debate

Methodological And Practice Based Evidence Based Practice
Methodological Issues While there are many people that think that evidence based practice and
practice based evidence should stay the way that they are. If you took both of these and used them
together it could provide the appropriate treatments and meet the needs of the patients. Evidence
based practice and practice based evidence play a big part in the treatment of a patient and their
mental health. Evidence based treatment would be a lot better if the research was focused on each
patient and what their needs are. There a many mental disorders that require different treatments and
most of them are evidence based, but this does not look at each patient individually, and there a
many people with health problems that could use both of the research and evidence to help them get
better. Evidence based practice and practice based evidence are a big part of a treatment process.
These two can provide appropriate treatment that is needed to make advances in health care
practices. Having enough evidence helps people determine whether to do something or not. To
provide the best possible treatment for each patient you have to take information and see what will
work best for each of your patients. Some will work and some will not work. Methodological issues
can arise with in any type of research and some are more controversial than others. In the article
"Practice Based Evidence: Back to the Future" (2011) the point of view was that research comes
from evidence and that

ISO/IEC 17799: A Methodological Information Management System
ISO/IEC 17799 and subsequent certification against the British standard for information security
BS7799 is the most comprehensive approach of all frameworks for best practices (Saint–Germain,
2005). The framework contains 10 security domains, 36 control objectives, and 127 controls that
identify specific means for meeting the control objectives. The domains consist of organizational
security, asset classification and control, personnel security, physical and environmental security,
communications and operations management, access control, systems development and
maintenance, business continuity management, and compliance. The control objectives consist of
general statements of security goals in each of the domains. ISO/IEC 17799 is a complex system
covering a number of security areas with flexibility to a variety of organizations. Successful
implementation of the framework helps organizations reduce risk level where the organization
spends less money to recover from security incidents. Each domain, control objective, and control
can be designed to meet the individual organization's specific security needs. To implement ISO/IEC
17799/BS 7799, a methodological information system management system that facilitates planning,
implementation, and documentation of security controls and assurance of constant process review,
such as COBIT, also needs to be implemented. "COBIT is a tool that allows managers to
communicate and bridge the gap with respect to control

Southwest Center Case Study
1) What is a complex question your organization must answer in order to fulfill its mission?
Describe the question in sufficient detail that the reader (your professor and your teammates) can
evaluate the potential of various methodological tools to investigate that question.
The mission of the Southwest Center for HIV/AIDS is to reduce new HIV infections, improve the
quality of life of HIV positive people, and contribute to worldwide HIV research. It is the only
organization in the Southwest that provides prevention and education programs, health and wellness
services, as well as research and clinical trials at one single location. Each year the Center serves out
to approximately 30,000 people at risk for HIV each year through direct services and outreach
programs. The central problem the Southwest Center faces is how to increase the low number of
people living with HIV (PLHIV) engaged in HIV care continuum, which refers to the steps of HIV
care that starts with the initial diagnosis to the goal of viral suppression. Solving this problem
requires finding a way to encourage PLHIV to continue seeking care after their initial diagnosis of
HIV.
2) What methodological tool(s) has your organization relied upon investigate that question and
identify answers?
To investigate this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Case studies would aid in our investigation by seeing what other similar organizations have done to
address low HIV care continuum rates, see what worked and what did not work, and how we can
apply this knowledge to our own practices. Focus groups comprised of our clients may be effective
in determining what specifically about our programs are working and what is not work. It will also
be useful in investigating reasons why client choose or choose not to continue with HIV

Angel Ajani's Methodological Dichotomy
I. Comment # 1
Building on the readings from last week, these readings speak to the struggles of balancing both
sides of the scholarly–activist hyphen...and, concurrently and saliently, how to convert theory into
effective activist and effectively integrate activism into theory. As the readings all indicate, in this
neoliberal era of higher education, this is no easy task. Speed's piece – "Forged in Dialogue" –
reflects some of the pitfalls awaiting the activist ethnographer/anthropologist (although I imagine
any social scientist may fall into them). For instance, in being called up as an expert witness (and
therefore testifying to what one has listened to in a way Angel Ajani may bristle at) inadvertently (at
least for the ethnographer) situates her in a power hierarchy over the very people she is seeking
collaboration with. (As many of the readings have noted, the ... Show more content on
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activist–minded anthropology as witnessing to be very compelling. (Just as compelling, although not
as well–examined, was the later slippage of calling research 'policing'.) As she highlighted, listening
will carried different meanings – and therefore result in different actions – for both. For the former it
entails processing the data through a lens of supposed scientific objectivity (which often benefits the
university and its supporters); for the latter it is a moral obligation to act upon it in such a way that
both acts as a testimony and overtly returns something to its source. For Ajani, in simply laying out
her participant's biography without needing to document the fact–finding of it (as a colleague
implied she should have), what was returned was a level of belief and trust which in turn (may have)
empowered the woman as a victim. I found it was in this moment that she moves away from the idea
of being a theoretical authority and becomes a participant in "ethical engagement"

Descartes Methodological Doubt
Descartes uses a process of methodological doubt to arrive at his understanding of the mind,
assuming he knows nothing in order to find what he knows for certain. He asserts that the senses are
not indubitable and often deceive us, as exemplified by the difficulty we have in distinguishing
dreams from reality. The dream scenario illustrates that a posteriori knowledge acquired via the
senses may be doubted, as no matter how realistic our experience feels – we could nonetheless be in
a dream. However, even in a dream state, a priori knowledge that presents itself – dealing with non–
composite, foundational elements such as mathematics and logic – still holds to be true. Even in
dreams, such knowledge is indubitable; 2 plus 3 must always logically equal 5. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The only way he could be deceived in a priori thinking would be by some omnipotent creature.
Hence Descartes conceives of a malicious demon that is capable of manipulating his experience and
his logical chains of reasoning. Unlike the dream scenario, the demon scenario makes not only the
senses and experience dubitable, but also the logic of the mind. From here, Descartes discovers that
even if his perceptions are not infallible and the world is not what he takes it to be (via the demon's
manipulation), and even if his chains of reasoning (say, mathematics) are made illogical and
confused, even then – he cannot be deceived that he is not doubting or thinking. Descartes asserts
that insofar as he is thinking, he exists. It is inconceivable to be thinking and yet not

Psy 496 Week 2 Assignment Methodological Issues Article...
PSY 496 Week 2 Assignment Methodological Issues Article Review
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Description
Methodological Issues Article Review. Read the following articles, which can be accessed through
the ProQuest database in the Ashford University Library:
Evidence–based practice in psychology: Implications for research and research training.
Practice–based evidence: Back to the future.
Psychological treatments: Putting evidence into practice and practice into evidence.
Write a three– to four–page article review in which you discuss methodological issues unique to
psychological research and analyze basic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Take the point of view of Brendtro, Mitchell, & Doncaster (2011) and analyze the article(s) you
selected in #3. Using these authors' arguments from their "Practice–Based Evidence: Back to the
Future" article, what would be their evaluation of the article(s) you selected?
Discuss ways in which an evidence–based practice model might provide practitioners useful
information for making decisions about the degree to which the treatment modality you selected in
#3 is an appropriate treatment for the disorder you specified.
PSY 496 Week 2 Assignment Methodological Issues Article Review
Purchase here
http://chosecourses.com/psy–496–week–2–assignment–methodological–issues–article–review
Description

Methodological Issues Article Review. Read the following articles, which can be accessed through
the ProQuest database in the Ashford University Library:
Evidence–based practice in psychology: Implications for research and research training.
Practice–based evidence: Back to the future.
Psychological treatments: Putting evidence into practice and practice into evidence.
Write a three– to four–page article review in which you discuss methodological issues unique to
psychological research and analyze basic applied psychological research relevant to the treatment of
mental disorders. In your paper, you will discuss

Methodological Naturalism And Religion
Critical Essay #1
Upon examination, the methodological naturalism approach to science seems reasonable and fair to
all those practicing the scientific method, despite religion. By only regarding the natural, it allows
those of different faiths to approach science on an even playing field, in that science does not regard
one religion or faith as the basis of understanding or laws; one does not have to adhere to a certain
faith to understand the laws of science as it is based in the objectivity of math and science. While
methodological naturalism does not draw a direct correlation between science and religion, it does
allow for overlap if the scientist is of a particular religion. As Haarsma describes, science does not
simply stop at objective

The Theoretical And Methodological Perspectives Of...
In the comparison of the theoretical and methodological perspectives of radicals Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, with the more liberal teachings of Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, there must be
an understanding that essentially they were all intellects of the period of the Enlightenment. The
philosophical basis of the Enlightenment was that human beings are substantially perfectible. This
meant that human beings could be taught things and that there was never an end to the capacity of
what could be achieved by a human being. Furthermore, what caused such delays in their
intellectual progress were the inequalities of society, which were a consequence that was leftover
from the feudal emphasis of faith and tradition. The principles ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
According to Karl Marx, capital is goods that are allotted for investments to increase overall profit.
The ability to acquire capital comes from the accrual of resources through barter and trade. In a
cycle labeled by Marx as "M–C–M", capital starts off simply as money. After acquiring money, a
capitalist then finds a way to transform the money into a commodity to increase their profits. After
such instance the commodities in turn will be used to purchase more goods such as machinery and
labor. By turning the profits into commodities, the capitalist is able to produce more goods and in
turn that in to more cash flow and increasingly more money. Consistent with Marx's teachings,
wealth is not really about how much money you have, but how many commodities that you have
accumulated. Marx states that the effort of the labor that is produced by individuals is not a
determinant in the value of the product produced. All of the workers are considered to be of equal
value in the beginning and are only differentiated when they function on different levels. Therefore,
the value of said product is not determined by the labor hours of the individual, but by how many
hours are necessary for the production of a commodity. The average worker usually works the
necessary value to support their family. The typical worker works the equivalent value that is needed
in order to support his family and return to work. While, in exchange the capitalist receives the
surplus

Methodological Issues And Challenges To Improve The Study...
The methodological issues and challenges that are unique to a psychological research of effective
treatments for psychological disorders are to reduce the burden of mental illness and behavioral
disorders by improving the treatments. The importance of completing these goals is by developing
and improving the use of treatments. According to our text, "single–subject designs allows true
experimental control of the independent variables because its cause and effect conclusions can be
fairly accurate when it is based on one participant" (Landrum, 2012 par. 1). Research suggests that
there is a growing strain toward towards clinicians that requires them to apply psychological
approaches and techniques that are supported by empirical data ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
"Evidence based–practice is a research–to–practice gap that exists in which some practices shown
are to be effective by scientific research are seldom used on applied settings, but some commonly
implemented practices are not empirically validated and may be ineffective or even harmful" (Cook
et al, 2012). To illustrate how evidence can be judged differently whether it adheres to the evidence–
based approach or to the practice–based approach, I have selected the social anxiety disorder.
According to a new study by researchers, "cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) by itself is a more
effective long–term treatment for social anxiety disorder than medication alone or a combination of
the two. Social anxiety disorder or social phobia is much more serious than social anxiety, which
many people deal with to some extent, especially when put in the spotlight. Social anxiety disorder
is a diagnosis for individuals who find it hard to function in social situations at all. For the study, the
researchers set out to analyze and compare the most recognized methods for treating social anxiety
disorders. Over 100 patients participated in the study and were divided into four groups. The first
group received only medication, the second group received only therapy, the third group received a
combination of the two, and the fourth received a placebo pill. During treatment and right

A Methodological Critique of Foreign Direct Investment in...
Many writers have tried to figure out if there is a direct link between Foreign direct investment
(FDI) and economic growth of an economy in terms of Gross domestic product (GDP) but a reliable
procedure hasn't been found yet. Sharma (2008) tends to assume that if more investments take place
in developing Countries then there will be an augmenting effect on the economy and likewise if
there is little or no FDI then there will be a growth retarding effect. The first part of the paper tries to
see what other authors have to say though we have limited articles regarding Foreign direct
investment and economic growth if it has a positive or negative effect, the second part tries to see
the methodology used and the final part is based on how ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
It included variables such as GDP, per capita income, GDP growth rate, FDI, inflation rate etc. from
66 developing Countries over the last three decades and their results suggest that FDI, trade, human
capital and domestic investment are important sources of economic growth for developing Countries
and they find a strong positive interaction between FDI in advancing economic growth and their
results also show that FDI stimulates domestic investment and the contribution of FDI to economic
growth is enhanced by its positive interaction with human capital and sound macro–economic
policies and institutional stability. The model it used was based on endogenous growth theory which
implies that FDI can affect growth endogenously if it generates increasing returns in production via
externalities and spillover effects. Duttaray, Dutt and Mukhopadhyay (2008) examined the causality
between FDI and economic growth for 66 developing Countries, taking into account their
interaction with exports and technological change and they also conducted time series analysis
which is for testing Granger causality in the presence of non stationary time series for each Country
and the main findings of this article are that FDI causes growth in several developing Countries but
the mechanism through which this works differs across Countries and reverse causality from growth
to FDI exists for many Countries. All data used was

The Four Types Of Methodological Approaches
3.0 Methodology 3.1 Introduction Previous chapter describes the methodological approaches used to
arrive at the aims and objectives of this study. This chapter is divided into seven parts. The first part
explains the research philosophy used in this survey outlining the philosophical foundation that
guided this research. The second part describes the research approach and the research strategy. The
third part illustrates the instruments used in this study. The forth part describes the sampling strategy
used in this section. The fifth part outlines the data collection approaches used in the research. The
sixth part explains the approach used in conducting data analysis. The remaining parts explain the
measures taken to ensure reliability of data collected and the ethical considerations that were taken
during the study. As a whole, this chapter provides an overview into how the research was
approached and executed. 3.2 Research Philosophy .Knowledge and arguments in particular are
developed based on a person's individualised view of the environments and activities within it.
According to Flower (2009), it is these individualised views that constitute what is referred to as
research philosophy. Basically, research philosophy is the approach taken in construction of
knowledge and by extension research. According to Saunders et al. (2009), there are three main
types of research philosophy namely: interpretivism, positivism and realism. In this particular study
an interpretivist

Overall Methodological Assumptions Of The Budget...
Overall methodological assumptions 1. On the choice of the budget–constraint and the nature of
financial markets We will notice that in an intertemporal scenario there are two possibilities of
formulating a break–even constraint for the natural monopolist but that one of them is more useful
for our purposes. The first possibility would consist of imposing repeatedly – i.e. period–by–period
– a zero–profit condition: this former case however, even if more correct in a real perspective of
changing interest rates and of non–flat yield curves, remains just theoretical because of its not
slightly difficult enforceability. The second possibility is instead to require the present value of net
future cash flows to achieve a target level that can be fixed following the optimal forecast built up
on the full–information rational expectation of today: to follow this way it will be necessary to
assume perfect financial markets, that is what we will do . Therefore, for the sake of our inquiry and
given that we will work with discounted values of profits and benefits, it will be necessary to
introduce a depreciation and a discount rate, thing that we will do pro tempore but according on the
hypothesis of perfection of financial markets. 2. On the evolution from the one–product to the
multiproduct case It is now necessary to point out the symmetry that makes it possible to move from
the time–sensitive examination of the single–product Natural Monopoly, regulated with AC pricing

Research Approach And Methodological Choice : Ontology And...
3.1 Research Approach and Methodological Choice
Ontology and epistemology are both essential elements of philosophy of knowledge. Ontology
refers to the nature of reality, or assumptions about how we see the world. In part of epistemology
refers to assumptions about the great way to study the globe (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2015).
In another word, epistemology is about the way we know things when ontology is about what things
are (De Vaus, 2001). As there are several major factors that have effects on the intention to purchase
airlines E–ticket. Thus, it is extremely important to discover those factors in order to assist the
author to answer the research questions effectively. For this reason, one of the main focusses of this
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Commonly, the importance of research is to provide a clearer proposal of conducting research,
which served to set more precise objectives (Ghauri and Gronhaun, 2005). This study discussed the
relevant literature on travel behavior, lifestyle segmentation and focused on the travel motivation
factors as well as information search element segmentation that affect the choice of travel
destinations. The main purpose of this paper is to propose a different group of lifestyle which
influences the decision‐making process of international students in parts of the travel motivation
factor and information search.
Figure 3.1: The research onion (Saunders et al, 2009, pp.108)
Trochim (2006) stated that there are two forms of approaches which are induction and deduction.
Inductive approach conducts the specific to the general, while deductive approach begins with the
general and ends with the specific (Trochim, 2006). Creswell and Plano (2007) also supported that
the process of deduction work as developing hypotheses based on existing theory, and then
designing a research strategy to test the hypotheses. From the literature reviewing on induction and
deduction approaches, the deductive approach is matched with this research as it begins with
defining theory relate with

Building A Methodological Foundation : Doctorial Level...
"Building a Methodological Foundation: Doctorial–Level Methods Courses in Colleges of
Education"
1. Where would be a more appropriate place for a statement of purpose? Write sentences that could
be used to indicate 1) that a comparison of programs and 2) dissertation experiences and
requirements are also a focus of the study.
Although, Leech and Goodwin (2008) include a general problem statement in the first paragraph,
according to McMillian and Wergin (2010) the location before or after the literature review is as not
important, rather that it is specific and not general to establish expected or predicted relationship for
the reader in quantitative studies. The primary concern is the statement deficiency to encapsulate the
full scope of the project. The topics include the comparison of education doctoral programs,
student's experiences, and requirements prior to dissertation work: The following is an enhanced
purpose statement.
The purpose of this study is twofold; first, to increase understanding of current methods courses
through a comparison of education doctoral programs (Ed. D., Ph.D., and both) offerings of required
and elective research methods courses in qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, and program
credit requirements across the United States. Second, to explore dissertation policies, procedures
including student experiences, and requirements prior to dissertation work.
2. What descriptions of the Caprano & Thompson (2008) study could be made in

Data Assessment: Basic Methodological Considerations
Data Assessment: Basic Methodological Considerations No research can ever be better than the
quality of research on which it is based, which is why it is essential to ensure that the data are as
accurate as possible as well as ensuring that the data have been gathered in a format that makes them
the most useful possible for the project at hand. It is important to note that different types of data are
more or less appropriate for different types of research: There is no single best method of collecting
data and no single best form of data for all research. For example, if one is examining how well a
new vaccination works then one will want to collect quantitative data such as the size of the dosages
given, the time interval between dosages, the age and weight of the patient, etc. In the most general
terms, quantitative data are data that you can count and that refer to objectively defined phenomenon
such as the time and dosage of a vaccination. Qualitative data are disparaged by many researchers
because they are considered to be too "soft"; that is, because they are embody subjective elements in
them. Certainly it is true that subjective data would be far from useful in many cases: One would not
want to take a vaccination that had been approved by researchers who had never bothered to make
precise measurements about the appropriate dosages. But, alternatively, one would never want
objective data about what a poem means for the simple reason that there simply are no

Research Methodological Approaches
Research Methodological Approaches
Introduction
This essay have discussed about the main methodological approaches and the definition and
explanation of the main philosophical terms, as well as mentioned about which philosophical
approach will be use in the research project for next year.
Business Research
Ontology
'A theory concerning the nature of social phenomena as entities that are to be admitted to a know
ledge system' (Saunders, 2007: 605).
The word 'ontology' seems to generate a lot of controversy. It has a long history in philosophy, in
which it refers to the subject of existence. It is also often confused with epistemology, which is
about knowledge and knowing.
Ontology is one of core areas of philosophical study, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The data collect by use questionnaires, and the quantitative data is more efficient.
Different with quantitative approach, for qualitative approach, the aim should be complete and
detailed statement, researcher may only know roughly what information is looking and he/she may
be subjectively immersed in the research process. The data gathering by use interview or focus
group, but the qualitative data may be less able to be generalized.
The research project has been decided to review the Apple Inc. development strategy during last 10
years.
According to what I learned from doing this research methodological approaches essay and analysis
the topic of research project, I found the most appropriate philosophical approach is the objective,
positivism and quantitative approach.
Bibliography
T. R. Gruber. (1993). 'A translation approach to portable ontologies', Knowledge Acquisition.
Jameson, F. (2002), 'A SINGULAR MODERNITY – ESSAY ON THE ONTOLOGY OF THE

PRESENT', Verso.
Bryman, A. And Bell, E. (2007), 'business research methods', Oxford university press Inc., New
York.
Donald, R. & Pamela, S. (2001), 'Business Research Methods', Irwin/McGraw–Hill Inc., New York.

Methodological Individualism
In the social sciences, an endless debate is ongoing involving fundamental issues pertaining between
methodological individualism and methodological holism. The reason this is such a deep rooted
heated debate amongst researchers is the fact that it touches upon our most 'deeply–seated' beliefs
about the nature of the individual and of society, our knowledge about these, and the idea of a good
society (Udehn, 2002). According to Parsons (1937) methodological individualism is a claim in
social phenomena which must be explained by showing how these results from individual actions,
which in turn must be explained through reference to the intentional states that motivate the
individual actors. Simply put, it is the claim that explanations of ... Show more content on
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Following economist Mark Blaug (1992), he believed that the effect to rule out the "macro"
propositions that could not be reduced to the "micro" would mean that all research using the
implication of the "macro" would have devastating effects for society, thus there must be something
wrong with this methodological principle. What is then majorly argued by theorist against
methodological individualism is the fact that working on theories based on an infinite amount of
possibilities could come up with an infinite amount of conclusions, thus never coming to the route
of the issue at hand. Secondly, much research conducted on the "macro", which has not been able to
be explained in terms of "micro", has been used by researchers with great success for society as a
whole, however if the methodological individualism model is correct, all of that research would be
rejected, and since no one is willing to throw out good research, there is a problem with
methodological individualism. Although methodological individualism is based on an infinite
amount of possibilities, Mises (1998) writes, society is not a sui generis entity; "there is I and you
and Bill and Joe and all the rest." From a methodological individualism viewpoint, collective nouns
describing social phenomena do not refer to independent substances. The idea the methodological
individualism develops a reductionist explanation of social phenomena to

Evaluation Approach And Methodological Framework
a. Evaluation approach and methodological framework
Since the action plan is currently in the beginning phase, evaluation will deal with the plan's
structure and process, rather than its outcomes. Therefore, it will be a formative evaluation which
can be also described as process evaluation; because it will focus on the ways of implementation and
relation of programme theory with actual operations (Morra, 2009). Moreover, the evaluation will
be comprehensive and inclusive enough to reflect all the concerns and developments in the member
states. The evaluation will employ mostly qualitative and marginally quantitative methods to collect
data, because the action plan is still in implementation phase and has not produced its outputs.
Different methods will be used in order to gather data about different aspects of the evaluation.
Below table summarizes the methods to be used in the evaluation:
Evaluation subject Methods to be employed
Coherence between the action plan and other policy documents of the European Union Document
review
Cohesiveness and adequacy of proposed actions for achieving the general aims of the plan
Document review and literature review
Current and potential implementation level of key actions Interviews and case studies
Awareness and satisfaction levels of stakeholders Structured surveys
Sustainability of the plan in terms of creating necessary tools and mechanisms which would serve
general goals Interviews and case studies
b. Expected data collection

Methodological Critique
Methodological Critique of "The Effects of a Creative Dance and Movement Program on the Social
Competence of Head Start Preschoolers" Study In 2006, a study done by Yovanka B. Lobo and
Adam Winsler measured the effects that dance or creative movement had upon low income
preschool children's social competence. The study demonstrated a positive relation between dance
and social competence in that there were signs of a gradual gain in a child's social competence and
improvement of their inward and outward behaviors during the two months study period (Lobo &
Winsler, 2006). Moreover, one can judge the assurance of a study by looking at the methods used.
This study expressed both strong and weak methodological techniques beginning with their
sampling ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There were numerous controls recorded to minimize any interference, such as a pretest–posttest
experimental method, as well as evidence of a temporal precedence, covariation, and elimination of
any alternative explanations. However, there was a lack in external validity in that one cannot
generalize these findings to any given group. Cozby (2012) explains, "When examining a single
study, we find internal validity to be generally in conflict with external validity. A researcher
interested in establishing that there is a causal relationship between variables is most interested in
internal validity" (p.86). This provides a general explanation of what may have occurred in this

Methodological Eclecticism in Teaching English as a...
Methodological Eclecticism in Teaching English as a Foreign Language
"Eclectic", remarks Atkinson (1988, p. 42), "is one of the buzz words in TEFL at present, in part due
to the realization that for the foreseeable future good language teaching is likely to continue to be
based more on common sense, insights drawn from classroom experience, informed discussion
among teachers, etc., than on any monolithic model of second language acquisition or all–embracing
theory of learning . . . ". One problem with this position is that your "common sense" and your
"insights" are apt to be different from mine. Another is that "discussion among teachers", though
valuable, is often a futile exercise in the blind leading the blind. No one with some ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Talk about monolithism! Two curricula and methodologies are essentially teacher–centered or pre–
determined curriculum–centered, as opposed to being learner–centered. They are developed on the
basis of a linear and group–addressed program, rather than on a semi–linear or even random
program derived from individual learners' feedback. They illustrate the traditional top–dictated
organization structure of pre–democratic societies, business management, and state education. Yet,
"language is a social as well as an individual phenomenon . . . It mirrors the culture . . . is culturally
acquired" (Finocchiaro & Bonomo 1973, p. 1). Three, in practice, student's overt behaviors are
observed and measured, whereas covert behaviors are ignored or lightly passed over or deplored . . .
when perceived or intimated by those whose job it is to help modify behavior. To behaviorism, overt
behavior is the very subject–matter of psychology, precisely because one can observe it, measure it,
and shape it. It is an atomistic theory for which reflexes and the conditioned reflex are the basic
units. The trouble is that the human being, though composed of atoms, is a complex system all parts
of which are dynamically interrelated. "Atomism is in essence an analytical doctrine. It regards
observable forms in nature not as intrinsic

Critical Discourse Analysis Paper
Qualitative approach to Critical Discourse Analysis requires the acknowledgement of biases,
assumptions and personality that may interfere with the research. Critical Discourse Analysis does
not require the researcher to interpret the participant's experience. Critical Discourse Analysis
required the researcher to interpret data by having links or share pattern between the items under
research. Reflexivity is design to prevent the research from manipulating the data to agree with is
his or her preconceived notions. The four type of Reflexivity are Personal, interpersonal,
methodological and contextual (Creswell, & Creswell' 2007) Personal reflexivity is the
acknowledgment of the researcher feelings about the subject. Interpersonal reflexivity is the
relationship the researcher shared with the research. Methodological reflexivity is the ability to
accept the outcome ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Contextual reflexivity is viewing the data in the correct context in relation to culture and time
period. Black masculinity required personal, interpersonal methodological reflexivity regarding
connection to the material. Social condition for most black males are similar but can be interpreted
differently. I believe, Black masculinity is a characterization use to stagnate a cultural group from
establish social acceptant. The culture understanding of black men is dangerous and has created a
climate that justified the killing of several black men. Jamaal Moore, Trayvon Martin, Eric Garner
and Michael Brown are some of the case involving unarmed black being killed. These cases have a
personal effect because I can self–identify with these black men and realize I can be killed without
consequent. The interpersonal feelings are directly related to the racial biases in American culture.
The killing of citizen goes mainly unnoted when they are black males (Adams & Govender,

A Qualitative Methodological Approach Through Field Research
Research in social science allows us to formulate and seek answers about the real world (Singleton
and Straits, 2010, p. 1). William Whyte's study can be described as a qualitative methodological
approach conducting observations through field research. A qualitative methodological approach
relies on observations rather than quantifiable evidence such as numbers and statistical analysis.
Whyte initially hypothesizes that there is a correlation where the Sun plays a factor on where people
decide to sit or not to sit. Whyte's team, the Street Light Project, installed cameras with a time–lapse
coverage of a cross–section of spaces consisting of 14 plazas and 3 small parks. The main technique
employed was simple and direct observation. The entities under study are referred to in social
research as units of analysis (Singleton and Straits, 2010, p. 81). Entities can range from individual,
groups, organization, objects or events. In the film, Whyte observes plazas, play areas, parks and
open spaces in New York City. The explanatory variables that were present in Whyte's study were
dependent and independent. Whyte's dependent variables were where people sat and people's
activities throughout the day. Whyte's independent variables were temperature and time of day. This
information gave Whyte the foresight on why some public spaces work and why others do not.
Sociability was a determinant factor because it illustrated the popularity of a plaza by the high
proportion of people that

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