This document provides an overview of research methodology. It discusses that research methodology is the systematic process of solving a research problem. It involves understanding which research methods and techniques are applicable to specific problems. The chapter then describes the procedural aspects used in the research process, including research philosophy, philosophical worldviews, research approach, research design, data collection strategies, data analysis, and ethical considerations. It presents the figure showing the methodological structure of research. Finally, it discusses various philosophical worldviews including postpositivism that guide researchers in determining the appropriate research design based on the research question.

1. Chapter Three
Research Methodology
3.1 Introductions
Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is the
systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge
and answer a certain question or solve a problem(Yigzaw, 2006).
Research methodologyis a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may
be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we
study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his
research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher
to know not only the research methods or techniquesbut also the methodology.
Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests,how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how
toapply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques,are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and
indicate and why. Researchers alsoneed to understand the assumptions underlying
various techniques and they need to know the criteriaby which they can decide that
certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problemsand others
will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his
methodologyfor his problem as the same may differ from problem to
problem(Kothari, 2004).
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2. This chapter describes the procedural or methodological aspects used in collecting,
interpreting, analyzing, compiling and evaluating the data.Under this chapter it has
Introduction, Philosophy, Research philosophy, philosophical worldviews, research
approach, research design, sampling design, universe and sample size, sampling
filters, types of data sources, data collection strategy, formations of questionnaires and
checklist, reliability and validity test of research instruments, language translation-
back-translation, discussion with expert, pilot study, data analysis and ethical
consideration. The main objective of this chapter is to explain various techniques and
tools used for data collection, analysis and interpretation.They are discussed in detail
in this chapter.
The research and research methodology or process can be shown in the figure below:
Figure-1: Methodological Structure.
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3. 3.2 Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected
with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is
distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally
systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument.In more casual speech, by
extension, "philosophy" can refer to "the most basic beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of
an individual or group"(WIKIPEDIA, 2013).
The word "Philosophy" was usedaround in 580 BC by Pythagoras of Somos for the
first time. In the very beginning philosophy was used for thepublicity of knowledge of
a person or a group and used to say discover of curiosity and meaning. But at present
the philosophy is also known as science of the science. Philosophy investigates and
explores the answer of the questions like – what is human?, What is life?, What is the
purpose of successful and real life?, What is the nature of universe?, What is death?,
Is there another world except earth?, Is there god or not?, What is truth-untruth?(Jha,
2002)
The word „Philosophy‟ involves two Greekwords – Philo meaning love and Sophia
meaning knowledge. Thusliterally speaking, philosophy means love of wisdom. Man
is a rationalanimal. Desire for knowledge arises from this rational nature of
man.Philosophy is an attempt to satisfy this very reasonable desire.Philosophy
signifies a natural and necessary urge in human-beings to know themselves and world
in which they live, move and have their being.It is impossible for man to live without
a philosophy. The choice is not„between metaphysic and no metaphysic; it is between
a goodmetaphysic and a bad metaphysic‟(Dube, 2009).
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4. Aristotle used to say Philosophy is the grouping of the knowledge of Universe". And
according to Socrates "Philosophyis the knowledge of truth". Likewise Zeigler stated
"The philosophy is the branch of learning, which investigates, evaluates, and
integrates knowledge of reality as best as possible into one or more systems
embodying all available wisdom about the universe"(Jha, 2002).
Philosophy provides the guidelines to conduct research study. This research was also
conducted through the guidelines acquired from philosophy.
3.2.1 Research Philosophy
Research philosophy denotes to the systematic search for existence, knowledge,
values, reasons, mind, and language. This research requires an open mind in order to
establish facts to both new and existing obscurities. Plato and Aristotle are regarded as
the father of philosophy.
Easterby-Smith et al (2008:56) explain that failure to think through philosophical
issues can seriously affect the quality of management research. They also outline that
knowledge of philosophy can help the researcher recognize which designs will work
best and that it enables the achievement of a satisfactory outcome for the research
activity. Saunders et al (2009:107) develop this further and explain that research
philosophy supports the creation of knowledge in a particular field and is influenced
by the way a researcher thinks(Orange, 2010).
Philosophical perspectives are worldviews that definethe nature of the world, the
individual‟s place in it, andthe possible relationships to that world and its
parts.Learning and instructional theories are developed withrespect to a particular set
of assumptions regardingwhat it means to know and learn. It is our contentionthat
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5. when situational variables require some decisionon the part of the educator (and we
believe this isalways the case), an underlying set of assumptions(whether they be tacit
or explicit) will, and should,drive the decision. In this chapter we provide
overviewdescriptions of five psychological perspectives, contrastedin terms of
epistemology, ontology, unit of analysis,and whether they suggest dualist
relationships.These theories (behaviorism, cognitivism, cognitiveconstructivism,
sociocultural or historicism, and situativitytheory) provide frameworks for describing
learningand designing instruction. It is the goal of this chapterto clarify these
distinctions and the underlying assumptionsso instructional designers, teachers, and
researchersmay make pedagogical decisions more explicitly(Yildiz, 2010).
Research philosophy shows the systematic way to conduct research activities.
Philosophy helps to establish relation to both existing and new knowledge and help to
select the proper research design and to create new knowledge and theory too.
3.2.2 Philosophical Worldviews
Although philosophical ideas remain largely hidden in research (Slife& Williams,
1995), they still influence the practice of research and need to be identified. I suggest
that individuals preparing a research proposal or plan make explicit the larger
philosophical ideas they espouse. This information will help explain why they chose
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches for their research (Creswell,
2011).
There are four types of philosophical worldviews which guide the researcher towards
the philosophy of research through which he/she can be able to determine research
design to accomplish the research work. The philosophical worldviews have been
described below.
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6. 3.2.2.1 Post Positivist Worldview
Insights from Dewey, Popper, and Rescher suggest a broad-based post positivist
philosophy mediating critical space between positivism and constructivism based
upon the quest for truth as a regulative ideal within a fallibilistic scientific
epistemology. A critical issue in adult literacy education illustrates the viability of
postpositivist research design as applicable especially to the social sciences. The
object here is less to draw out the subtle distinctions and potential points of conflict
between Dewey, Popper, and Rescher, than to highlight some of the ways in which
the collective impact of their work contributes toward the shaping of a postpositivist
temper(Demetrion, 2004).
A Post-positivist research approach advocates methodological pluralism. It is based
on the assumption that the method to be applied in a particular study should be
selected based on the research question being addressed. The research described here
takes a post-positivist approach, applying interpretive research in two ways: in an
exploratory study of end-user computing conducted prior to a positivism study and in
a study of end-user searching behaviours conducted concurrently with a positivist
study(Wildemuth, 1993).
Post positivists hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine
effects or outcomes. Thus, the problems studied by post-positivists reflect the need to
identify and asses the causes that influence outcomes, such as found in experiments. It
is also reductionistic in that the intent is to reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set of
ideas to test, such as the variables that comprise hypotheses and research questions.
The knowledge that develops through a positivist lens is based on careful observation
and measurement of the objective reality that exists "out there" in the world. Thus,
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7. developing numeric measures of observations and studying the behavior of
individuals becomes paramount for a post-positivist(Creswell, 2011).
The Post positivist worldviews can be used for the quantitative research. A part of this
research is also quantitative. So, this worldviews also was used in this research study.
3.2.2.2 The Social Constructivist Worldview
Social constructivists hold assumptions that individuals seek understanding of the
world in which they live and work. Individuals develop subjective meanings of their
experiences–meanings directed toward certain objects or things. These meanings are
varied and multiple, leading researcher to look for the complexity of views rather than
narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas. The goal of the research is to rely
as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation being studied. The
questions become broad and general so that the participants can construct the meaning
of a situation, typically forged in discussions or interactions with other
persons(Creswell, 2011).
Constructivism in education emerged after the behaviorist movement as a welcome
and refreshing view oflearning that centers on the active learner within the teaching-
learning process. This emphasis on theindividual (within the greater social context)
during instruction has drawn attention to the prior beliefs,knowledge, and skills that
individuals bring with them. Prior knowledge has been shown to
significantlyinfluence the ways individuals make meaning out of instruction. The
constructivist focus on the socialcontext and larger community of learners has
resulted in a major shift away from individually-basedinstruction to instruction that
incorporates and embeds teaching within the larger community of peers,younger
students, as well as those who are older. Finally, constructivism's greatest contribution
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8. to educationmay be through the shift in emphasis from knowledge as a product to
knowing as a process. This legacy ofconstructivism will likely prove to be a lasting
and meaningful shift in the structure of schooling(Brader-Araje, 2002).
The Social Constructivist Worldview is concerned with the qualitative research. A
part of this research study is also qualitative in nature. So, this philosophical
worldviews was also used in this research.
3.2.2.3 The Advocacy and Participatory Worldview
An advocacy and participatory worldviewhold that research inquiry needs to be
intertwined with politics and a political agenda. Thus, the research contains an action
agenda for reform that may change the lives of the participants, the institutions in
which individuals work or live, and the researcher‟s life. Moreover, specific issues
need to be addressed that speak to important social issues of the day, issues such as
empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and lineation. The
researcher often begins with one of these issues as the focal point of the study. This
research also assumes that the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so as to not
further marginalize the participants as a result of the inquiry. In this sense, the
participants may help design questions, collect data, analyze information, or reap the
rewards of the research. Advocacy research provides a voice for these participants,
raising their consciousness or advancing an agenda for change to improve their lives.
It becomes a united voice for reform and change(Creswell, 2011).
This worldviews was in opposition to the post-positivist assumptions because post-
positivist worldviews is applied in quantitative research and in experimental study and
the research ia based on the researcher's own idea but Advocacy and participatory
worldviews concerned with qualitative research and the researcher take help from the
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9. participant to prepare questions, data collection, analyzing the information. It helps to
raise the consciousness for change to improve prtipants lives too. This research was
concerned to participate respondents to change their perception and attitude towards
the behavioural change. So, this worldviews was used in reserch activities.
3.2.2.4 The Pragmatic Worldview
Pragmatism is a method of philosophy begun by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914),
popularized by William James (1842-1910), and associated with two other major
early representatives, John Dewey (1859-1952) and George Herbert Mead (1863-
1931). Pragmatism was defined in 1878 by Peirce as follows: “Consider what effects
that might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our
conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our
conception of the object” (Peirce, 1992: 132)(Halton, 2004).
According to John Dewey "Pragmatism is a philosophy of human nature". Likewise
Ross stated that "Pragmatism is essentially a humanistic philosophy maintaining that
man creates his own value in the course of activity, that reality is still in making and
awaits part of its complexion from the future, that to an unascertainable extent our
truths are man-made products"(Jha, 2002).
A pragmatic research philosophy is introduced that embraces mixed-method
approaches to applied research questions. With its origins in the work of Peirce
(1984), James (1907), Dewey (1931), and contemporary support from Rorty (1982,
1990, 1991), pragmatism emphasizes the practical problems experienced by people,
the research questions posited, and the consequences of inquiry. As a way to highlight
applications of pragmatism in sport psychology, pragmatism is compared to
constructivism and positivism in terms of philosophical underpinnings and
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10. methodological applications. The pragmatic researcher is sensitive to the social,
historical, and political context from which inquiry begins and considers morality,
ethics, and issues of social justice to be important throughout the research process.
Pragmatists often use pluralistic methods during multiphase research projects.
Exemplar design types are discussed that logically cohere to a pragmatic research
philosophy(Giacobbi, Pazwardowski, & Hager, 2005).
Pragmatism is the philosophy of common sense. It uses purposeful human inquiry as a
focal point. Inquiry is viewed as a continuing process which acknowledges the
qualitative nature of human experience as problematic situations emerge and are
recognized. Recognition involves the doubt associated with questioning existing
belief systems. Doubt is resolves through critical reasoning and ultimately tested in
action. It is the philosophy of common sense, because actions are assessed in light of
practical consequences. Finally, inquiry is not necessarily limited to individual effort;
rather it often incorporates a "community of inquirers". The applicability of
pragmatism to Public Administration inquiry flows from the above definition(Shields,
1998).
This article discusses the use of a pragmatic approach as the philosophical foundation
of pedagogy in Finnish universities of applied sciences. It is presented that the
mission of the universities of applied sciences falls into the interpretive paradigm of
social sciences. This view is used as a starting point for a discussion about
pragmatism in higher education. The Learning by Developing (LbD) action model is
introduced, analyzed and compared to pragmatism. The paper concludes that, at least
in practice-oriented academic subjects, a pragmatic approach to pedagogy, as well as
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11. the LbD action model, is effective and could be considered in several universities as
the basis of philosophy of pedagogy(Raij, 2011).
This research is based on the philosophy, Pragmatism. It is concerned with learning
by doing, learning by trial and error and learning by experiences. Pragmatism deals
with both approaches i.e. Inductive and Deductive and both qualitative and
quantitative methods of research. This study is also based on both the qualitative and
quantitative or mixed method. So, this research study is guided by Pragmatism.
3.3 Research Approaches
Research approach refers to the way of conducting research. There are two types of
research approaches which are used in the research methodologies; they are Inductive
and deductive approaches. The research approach is decided on the basis of research
question. Inductive approach is planned at the time flow needed from specific to
general. Similarly, deductive approach is in case when the topic demand flow from
general to specific.This research is based on both inductive and deductive approaches.
3.3.1 Inductive Approach
Inductive reasoning is a theory building process, starting with observations of specific
instances, and seeking to establish generalisations about the phenomenon under
investigation(Hyde, 2000).
Ageneral inductive approach for analysis of qualitative evaluation data is described.
Thepurposes for using an inductive approach are to (a) condense rawtextual data into
a brief, summaryformat; (b) establish clear links between the evaluation or research
objectives and the summaryfindings derived from the rawdata; and (c) develop a
framework of the underlying structure of experiencesor processes that are evident in
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12. the raw data. The general inductive approach provides aneasily used and systematic
set of procedures for analyzing qualitative data that can produce reliableand valid
findings. Although the general inductive approach is not as strong as some other
analyticstrategies for theory or model development, it does provide a simple,
straightforward approach forderiving findings in the context of focused evaluation
questions. Many evaluators are likely to findusing a general inductive approach less
complicated than using other approaches to qualitative dataanalysis(Thomas D. R.,
2006).
Inductive approach helps to generate new theory.It is less complicated than other
approaches. It provides easily used and systematic procedures for analyzing
qualitative data and reliable and valid findings. It is not much strong as analytical
approaches but it provides simple approach to derive findings.
3.3.2 Deductive Approach
Deductive reasoning is a theory testing process which commences with an established
theory or generalisation, and seeks to see if the theory applies to specific
instances(Hyde, 2000).
Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic or logical deduction or, informally, "top-
down" logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements
(premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion(Wikipedia, 2013).
Deductive approach is "a methodof reasoning by which (1) concrete applications or
consequences are deducted from general principles or (2) theorems are deduced from
definitions and postulates-compare" (Webster, 2013).
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13. Deductive approach tests the theory. It helps to reach in certain logical conclusion.
Actual consequences are deducted from general principal and theorems are deducted
from definitions in this approach. So this approach was used in testing the theory,
which was used in research as a guide.
This research is based on mixed method in which both inductive and deductive
approaches were used. The qualitative research is guided by the Inductive Approach
and the quantitative research is guided by Deductive Approach whereas Inductive
approach is used to generate the theory and Deductive Approach is used to test the
theory. So both approaches were used in this research study to test the existing theory
of behaviour and to generate the suitable theory of reproductive health behavior.
3.4Research design
A research design is a procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer
questions validly, objectively, accurately and economically. According to Jahoda et
al. 'A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure'(1962:50) (Kumar, 1999).
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation ofthe design of the research project, popularly known as the “research
design”. Decisions regardingwhat, where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitutea research design. “A research
design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis ofdata in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutesthe blueprint for the collection, measurement and
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14. analysis of data. As such the design includes anoutline of what the researcher will do
from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications tothe final analysis of
data(Kothari, 2004).
Research designs are plans and procedures for research that span the decisions from
broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis. This plan
involves several decisions, and they need not to be taken in the order in which they
make sense to me and the order of their presentation here. The overall decision
involves which design should be used to study a topic. Informing this decision should
be the worldview assumptions the researcher brings to the study; procedures of
inquiry (called strategies); and specific methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. The selection of a research design is also based on the nature of the
research problem or issue being addressed, the researchers' personal experiences, and
the audiences for the study(Creswell, 2011).
There are three types of research designs which are mentioned below:
Exploratory Design
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The
main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of
view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As
such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt
flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined
initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies,
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15. which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant
data (Kothari C. R., 2004).
Descriptive Design
Descriptive researchstudies are those studies, which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particularindividual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research
studies determine the frequency with whichsomething occurs or its association with
something else. The studies concerning whether certainvariables are associated are
examples of diagnostic research studies(Kothari C. R., 2004).
Experimental Design
Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as
such there areseveral experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into
two broad categories, viz.,informal experimental designs and formal experimental
designs. Informal experimental designs arethose designs that normally use a less
sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes,whereas formal
experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise statistical
procedures for analysis(Kothari C. R., 2004).
There are three types of research design i.e. explorative, descriptive and experimental
design. The researcher uses the suitable design/designs according to his/her
objectives. All three designs have equal importance according to the nature, and the
subject of research. This research study is based on explorative research design for
qualitative and descriptive research design for quantitative research. Hence, this
research was conducted with both qualitative and quantitative types or mixed types of
research method. The research methods are described below:
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16. 3.4.1 Quantitative Research Strategy
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist/post-positivist
paradigm. It usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so
that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn(Freitag, 2009).
Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories by examining the
relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analysed using statistical procedures. The
final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory,
methods, results, and discussion (Creswell, 2008). Like qualitative researchers, those
who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories
deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative
explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the findings(Creswell, 2011).
For the quantitative research following research techniques can beapplied:
Survey Research
In survey research, independent and dependent variables are used to define the scope
of study, but cannot be explicitly controlled by the researcher. Before conducting the
survey, the researcher must predicate a model that identifies the expected
relationships among these variables. The survey is then constructed to test this model
against observations of the phenomena (Glasow, 2005).
Experimental Research
Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an
outcome. This impact is assessed by providing a specific treatment to one group and
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17. withholding it from another and then determining how both groups scored on an
outcome. Experiments include true experiments, with the random assignment of
subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi-experiments that use nonrandomized
designs (Keppel, 1991). Included within quasi-experiments are single-subject
designs(Creswell, 2011).
Quantitative research method uses the closed ended questions, predetermined
approaches and numeric data. It tests or verifies the theories or explanations. It
identifies variables to study and uses standards of validity and reliability. It helps
researcher to observe and measure the information numerically. So, the facts or
information has reliability and validity. This research study is also a quantitative
research a kind. So quantitative research strategy was used in this research study to
get more reliable and valid data, fact or information related to the subject matters. The
survey method was used for the collection of data.
3.4.2 QualitativeResearch Strategy
Qualitative research is the approach usually associated with the social constructivist
paradigm which emphasises the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about
recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance
of human behaviour and experience, including contradictory beliefs, behaviours and
emotions. Researchers are interested in gaining a rich and complex understanding of
people‟s experience and not in obtaining information which can be generalized to
other larger groups(Freitag, 2009).
Qualitative is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves
emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant's
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18. setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the
researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. The final written report
has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of
looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and
the importance of rendering the complexity of a situation (adapted from Creswell,
2007) (Creswell, 2011)
For the qualitative research strategythere are five research strategieswhich are
described below:
Ethnography
Ethnography is the study of a certain cultural or ethnic group of people in prolonged
period of time in a natural setting.
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is the process of deriving theory or theories on the basis of
participants' view. The two primary characteristics of this design are the constant
comparison of data with emerging categories and theoretical sampling of different
groups to maximize the similarities and the differences of information(Creswell,
2011).
Case Studies
The researcher studies in-depth of a case or a person or group within the certain
period of time. The researcher collects data using various data collection procedures.
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19. Phenomenological Research
The researcher identifies the fundamental nature of human experience about the
phenomenon as described by the participants. The researcher sets his/her own
experiences in order to understand participantsexperiences.
Narrative Research
The researcher studies the lives of people in which one or more individuals provide
the stories about their lives.The researcher asks the life stories of the people
individually and then combines the views of all to his/her life in collaborative
narratives.
Following methods are also suitable for the collection of data during research
study:
Focus Group Discussion
A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked
about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service,
concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive
group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. The first
focus groups were created at the Bureau of Applied Social Research in the USA, by
associate director, sociologist Robert K. Merton. The term itself was coined by
psychologist and marketing expert Ernest Dichter (WIKIPEDIA, 2013).
In-Depth Interview
In-depth interviewing, also known as unstructured interviewing, is a type of interview
which researchers use to elicit information in order to achieve a holistic understanding
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20. of the interviewee‟s point of view or situation; it can also be used to explore
interesting areas for further investigation. This type of interview involves asking
informants open-ended questions, and probing wherever necessary to obtain data
deemed useful by the researcher. As in-depth interviewing often involves qualitative
data, it is also called qualitative interviewing (Berry, 1999).
Qualitative method research strategies use the open ended questions, emerging
approaches, texts or image data. It focuses on a single concept or phenomenon and
brings personal values into the study. It creates an agenda for change or reform. This
research study also applied the qualitative research strategy in some cases for the
creation of agenda related to the adolescents to change or reform the attitude and
behavior towards the adolescents and towards the reproductive health of the
adolescents, parents and the societies.
3.4.3 MixedMethod Research Strategies
Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both
qualitative and quantitative forms. It involves philosophical assumption, the use of
qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the mixing of both approaches in a study.
Thus it is more than simply collecting and analyzing both kinds of data; it also
involves the use of both approaches in tandem so that the overall strength of a study is
greater than either qualitative or quantitative research (Creswell and Plano
Clark,2007) (Creswell, 2011).
There are three strategies in mixed method research strategies, which are described
below:
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21. Sequential Mixed Methods
The researcher elaborates on the findings of one method to another method. In this
method the researcher collects the data by using qualitative technique and later on
quantitative technique, then compares and generalizes the result to the population.
Concurrent Mixed Methods
The researcher merges the qualitative and quantitative data in order to provide the
comprehensive analysis of the research problems. In this method, the researcher
collects the both forms of data in a same time and integrates the information or facts
during the interpretation of the overall results.
Transformative Mixed Methods
The researcher uses a theory as an overarching perspective within a design in which
both qualitative and quantitative data are contained. It provides a framework for the
selection of topic of interest, data collection strategy and the results by the study.
Mixed method claims the practical knowledge. Both open and closed ended questions,
both emerging and pre-determined approaches and both the qualitative and
quantitative data can be used in this method. It helps to integrate the data at different
stages of inquiry and employs the practice of both qualitative and quantitative
research.Only quantitative or qualitative research may cause bias in research.Mixed
method helps to control the bias in research. So, this research was based on mixed
method for the purpose of minimizing or controlling the different types of biasness.
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22. This research study is about the adolescents, who are studying in school especially in
grade 9 to 12. The research topic is "Assessment of Reproductive Health Behaviour of
School Adolescents". So the study focuses on the evaluation of reproductive health
behavior of the school adolescents.
The adolescents who are going to school might have more opportunity to know about
reproductive health than others who have not access the school education. There is the
curriculum of reproductive system, its functions and process too, and the teachers
might give the knowledge about sexual and reproductive health during classroom
teaching. The main objectives of the study are to identify the factors influencing the
behaviour towards reproductive health, to find out the access on youth friendly
reproductive health service and to identify the knowledge and behavior on RH and
their vulnerability on STI.
The research study was carried out in Makwanpur District among the school
adolescents of classes 9 to 12. The required data was especially related to the
reproductive health and its variables. So, the data were obtained from many journals,
books, reports published by institutions and organisations, websites, Newspaper and
articles etc. Likewise the study was planned according to the time frame or schedule.
According to the planning, the study was completed.
For the selection of sample and to determine the sample size the study area,
Makawanpur district was divided into five strata. Four strata were separated on the
basis of electoral constituency in village areas and one stratum is made to
municipality because there is only one municipality in Makawanpur district and it has
different characteristics than the VDCs as it is more developed area in the district.
Only those VDCs are included in the strata where higher secondary schools (up to 12
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23. classes) are running. After that the respondents were selected as proportionate
stratified sampling method from the sampled schools. Both boys and girls were
included as respondent.
The data was collected from both sources i.e. primary and secondary. For the
collection of primary data questionnaire, survey, checklist and rating scales were used
and journals, books, reports, newspaper and articles were studied for the collection of
secondary data. And the collected data from both primary and secondary sources were
analysed with the help of SPSS, a computer software especially for the quantitative
data and for the analysis of qualitative data or facts ………. was used.
After the analysis of required collected data the report was prepared on the basis of
American Psychological Association (APA) style.
Across-sectional study was conducted with 400 school adolescents to investigate their
reproductive health behaviour and its insinuations for human health and society in
Makawanpur district in Nepal.
Both qualitative and quantitative research method (mixed method) were applied for
this research. Across-sectional study was conducted with 400school adolescents to
look into their reproductive health behaviour and its implications for human health
and society in Makawanpur district in Nepal.
3.3 Sampling design
Sample design refers to the means by which one selects the primary units for data
collection and analysis appropriate for a specific research question. These units may
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24. consist of states, cities, census enumeration districts, court records, cohorts or
individuals. Irrespective of the kind of unit, data are always collected at specific times
and places about a specific set of cases (a sample) that comprises a selected subset of
a larger sets of cases, times and places ( a population). Answer to research questions
thus takes the form of inferences from samples. A useful sample design warrants the
conclusion that one's inferences are both accurate and appropriately
precise(Handwerker, 2005).
Makawanpur is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, multi-cultural and multi-geographic
district. The survey/studywas done in both urban and rural areas of the district. The
multistage sampling technique at different and varied stages was used to choose the
area and respondent for study.
There are four electoral constituencies in Makawanpur district,where only one
municipality and 43 DVCs are there. Among 43 VDCs, only 15 VDCs have higher
secondary school (the school running up to 12 classes). The target respondents were
selected from the classes 9-12. So the higher secondary schools were taken as
universe in VDCs and municipality too.There are 19 higher secondary schools in
VDCs and 12 in municipality. But 2 schools are running up to 10 classes only. So,
they are eliminated from the universe or population and only 10 schools were taken as
universe in municipality. All together there are 29 higher secondary schools in
Makawanpur district,which was shown in table 1 below.
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25. Table 1: Total Number of Higher Secondary Schools in Makawanpur District as
Universe.
Electoral Constituency Name of VDCs & Name of Higher Sec. Schools
Municipality
Harnamadi VDC JyotiH.Sec. School
JanapriyaH.Sec. School
Hatiya VDC BalbodhH.Sec. School
Electoral Constituency -1 Chhatiwan VDC MahendraH.Sec. School
BuddhaH.Sec. School
Phaparbari VDC JanataH.Sec. School
Makawanpur Gadhi VDC ChandikaH.Sec. School
BhanuH.Sec. School
Tistung VDC BajrabarahiH.Sec. School
Chitlang VDC SwachchhandaBhairabH.Sec. School
Electoral Constituency -2 Palung VDC JanaklyanH.Sec. School
Ambhanjyang VDC SharadaH.Sec. School
Bhimphedi VDC MahendraH.Sec. School
Bhutan DeviH.Sec. School
TribhuvanH.Sec. School
PragatiH.Sec. School
BanshagopalH.Sec. School
SiddharthaH.Sec. School
ChandrodayH.Sec. School
Electoral Constituency -3 Hetauda Municipality AdhunikH.Sec. School
TulsiMehar Memorial H.Sec. School
Solidarity International H.Sec. School
Zenith International H.Sec. School
Basamadi VDC NirmalH.Sec. School
MahendraKiranH.Sec. School
Padampokhari VDC MahendraH.Sec. School
Handikhola VDC MahendraJyotiH.Sec. School
Electoral Constituency -4 Manahari VDC MahendraKiranH.Sec. School
Namtar VDC KalikaH.Sec. School
The sample size was taken as proportionately. The proportion of sample was
determined with the help of following formulas.
There District was divided into five strata. So to find out the required sample size
within the stratum, following formula was used, where total number of school (N)
=29, total schools in first stratum (N1)=8, total schools in second stratum(N2) = 5,
total schools in third stratum (N3) = 10, total schools in stratum four (N4) = 3, and
total schools in stratum five (N5) = 3, where required sample size (n) = 10
25

26. i) Required sample size for stratum 1 (n1)= n.P1,where(P1= ). According to the
formula, the required sample size for stratum 1 (n1)= n.P1= 10x0.28=2.8
(approximately 3)
ii) Required sample size for stratum 2 (n2) = n.P2, where P2= .According to the
formula,the required sample size for stratum 2 (n2) = n. P2 = 10x0.17=
1.7(approximately 2)
iii) Required sample size for stratum 3 (n3) = n.P3, where P3= . According to
formula,the required sample size for stratum 3(n3) = n.P3 = 10x 0.34=3.4
(approximately 3)
iv) Required sample size for stratum 4 (n4) = n.P4, where P4= . According to
formula,the required sample size for stratum 4(n4) = n.P4 = 10x 0.10=1
(approximately 1)
v) Required sample size for stratum 5 (n5) = n.P5, where P5= . According to
formula,the required sample size for stratum 5(n5) = n.P5 = 10x 0.10=1
(approximately 1)
Among the higher secondary school in Makawanpur district 10 (34.48%) schools
were taken as sample. First of all the district was divided into four strata in VDCs
level and one stratum in municipality level on the basis of electoral constituency. But
there are two strata in electoral constituency No.3, because it has both VDCs and
municipality. The municipality has its own different characteristics i.e. it is more
developed and more facilitated area, so the municipality was separated as single
stratum from the VDCs to have the equal representation from all areas of the district.
26

27. All together the district was divided into 5 strata. After that 10 schools (which are
running up to 12 classes)were selectedaccording to the proportionate stratified
sampling from every stratum.Probability random sampling technique was applied to
select the school in every stratum. The municipality has both community and
institutional schools. So, one institutional school among three was selected as sample,
which is shown in table 2.
Table 2: Total Number of Strata and Sampled Higher Secondary Schools in
Makawanpur District.
Electoral Constituency Name of VDCs & Name of Higher Sec. Schools
Municipality
Harnamadi VDC Janapriya Higher Secondary School
Electoral Constituency -1
Chhatiwan VDC Buddha Higher Secondary School
(Stratum – 1)
MakawanpuGadhi VDC ChandikaH.Sec.School
Electoral Constituency -2 Tistung VDC BajrabarahiHigher Secondary School
(Stratum – 2) Ambhanjyang VDC SharadaHigher Secondary School
Siddhartha Higher Secondary School
Stratum-3 Hetauda Municipality TulsiMehar Memorial H.Sec. School
Electoral Bhutan Devi H.Sec.School
Constituency -3 Stratum-4 Padampokhari VDC Mahendra Higher Secondary School
Electoral Constituency -4 Manahari VDC MahendraKiran Higher Sec. School
(Stratum – 5)
Likewise for the selection of respondent/students proportionate stratified sampling
method was used in each class of sampled schools. Fivegirls and five boys were
selected from each class (9 to 12 classes) of the sampled schools. The numbers of
respondents from every school were 40.All together Total numbers of respondents
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28. were 400 in 10 sampled schools.A cross-sectional survey was carried out withinthe
sample of universe in Makawanpur district.
3.4 Universe and Sample size
Out of the total34,361 schools 33,881 are primary, 13,791 are lower secondary,34,066
are basic, 7,938 are secondary, 3,382 are higher secondary and 8,233 aresecondary
(Grades 9-12) levels.Out of the total 34,361 schools, 835 are religious schools
(Madarasa, Gumba/Viharand Ashram/Gurukul)(MOE, Flash I REPORT 2068 (2011-
012), 2012). Likewise the total number of students at secondary, higher secondary and
secondary (grades: 9-12) levels are 848,569; 353,338 and 1,201,907 respectively; of
the total enrolment at secondary, higher secondary and secondary (grades: 9-12),
83.5%, 88.0% and 84.8% are in community schools, whereas 16.5%; 12.0% and
15.2% are in institutional schools. Similarly of the total enrolment at the school level,
girls‟ enrolment constitutes almost 50.4%,of this, 50.4% at primary level, 50.5% at
lower secondary level, 50.4% at basic level, 49.7% at secondary level, 51.2%at higher
secondary level and 50.2% at secondary (grades: 9-12) level.(MOE, 2012).
For the determination of sample size following formula was used.
Sample size (n) = , where confidence level
= 1.96, prevalence = 0.5,and marginal error = 0.05 percent. Or [n=
.]
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29. For the accuracy of data, the researchers have to take minimum 384 sample size.
While filling the questionnaire there might be some missing data or errors. So, for the
minimization of errors researchers have to select minimum 400 sample size.
Respondents were selected through proportionate random sampling technique. The
key objective of this survey was to find out the adolescents reproductive health
behaviour influencing factors.
3.5 Sampling Filters
The main aim of a sample is to perform as a trustworthy replacement for the entire
statistical population from which it is taken. The students of different schools
provided the statistical respondents. Sampling theory specifies that after the
identification of the statistical respondents, a sampling frame is recognized which
preferably list the entire individualof the statistical respondents from which a sample
is to be taken.
3.5.1 Selection of study areas and its justification
Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlockedsovereign
state located in South Asia. With an area of 147,181 square kilometres (56,827 sq mi)
and a population of approximately 27 million (and nearly 2 million absentee workers
living abroad), Nepal is the world's 93rd largest country by land mass and the 41st
most populous country. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by
the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of
India. Specifically, the Indian states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal, and Sikkim border Nepal, while across the Himalayas lies the Tibetan
Autonomous Region. Kathmandu is the nation's capital and largest metropolis.
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30. Nepal has a rich geography. The mountainous north has eight of the world's ten
tallest mountains, including the highest point on Earth, Mount Everest, called
Sagarmatha in Nepali. It contains more than 240 peaks over 20,000 ft. (6,096 m)
above sea level. The fertile and humid south is heavily urbanised.
Hinduism is practised by about 81% of Nepalis, making it the country with the highest
percentage of Hindu followers; Buddhism is linked historically with Nepal and is
practiced by 9%, Islam by 4.4%, Kirat 3%, Christianity 1.4%, and animism 0.4%
(WIKIPEDIA, 2013).
Map of Nepal
Makawanpur District
Makwanpur District, a part of Narayani Zone, is one of the seventy-five districts of
Nepal, a landlocked country of South Asia. The district, with Hetauda as its district
headquarters, covers an area of 2,426 km², density of 170/km2, altitude of 305-2743
30

31. metersand had a population of 392,604 in 2001 and 420,477 in 2011(WIKIPEDIA,
2012).
Makawanpur is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, multi-cultural district. It has varied
geographical features. The people of high classes to low classes on the basis of
economic status are living here. One of the big industrial area is in this district and it
is famous in the country because of its agricultural activities. People of Terai and
from other places are migrating in this district for the permanent settlement in this
district because of its suitable climate and environment. The district represents the
whole scenario of the country, Nepal.
Makawanpur is one of the famous district of Nepal, in case of girl trafficking.
Hundreds of girls aresold from this district out of the country for the purpose of
prostitution. When they return to the district after some years, some of them start
prostitution here too. So, this district is vulnerable to STIs, HIV and AIDS. Likewise
premarital sex and sexual activities in some ethnic group is normal. Due to this there
are immature sexual activities among adolescents which lead them to the risk of HIV
and other STIs and unsafe abortion.
Similarly the average age of marriage in some ethnic group like Tamang, Chepang
etc. is low. They do not have proper knowledge of bad effects of early marriage and
early pregnancy.
Many NGOs and INGOs are working in the field of reproductive health here in
Makawanpur district because of its vulnerability to HIV and other STIs, girl
trafficking etc. So Makawanpur district is the suitable area for the research on
31

32. reproductive health to find out the real situation of the district to assist the nation for
making the strategies to protect the adolescents from RH problem and support them
for healthier and happy life.
Study Area (Makawanpur District)
3.5.2 Selection of respondents and its justification
A respondent is a person who is called upon to issue a response to a communication
made by another (Wikipedia, 2012). The respondents of this study were the school
adolescents. School adolescents especially studying in class 9 to 12 are the
respondents of the research. Although, the adolescents who have opportunity to goto
school, are supposed to have more knowledge of reproductive health than the
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33. adolescents who are far from the school education, but the school adolescents are also
equally vulnerable to STIs and other RH related problems.
Having knowledge of RH is not enough to get ride from RH issues and problems. The
sexual and reproductive health behavior is more significant for the RH issues.
Behaviour is the indicator of both knowledge and attitude of a person. So behavior
must be positive of a person who has got knowledge about sexual and reproductive
health.
Behaviouris the range of actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or
artificial entities in conjunction with their environment, which includes the other
systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of
the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external,
conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary(Wikipedia,
2013).
Adolescence is a period of curiosity. Especially the adolescents attracted towards the
opposite sex. School is the place where many adolescents meet from different society
and cultural practices. During the school time the adolescents, both boys and girls sit
together, share difficulties and problems as well as their feelings of friendship and
love in study period and the way to school from home and way to home from school
is the suitable place where adolescents propose friendship, love, and the sexual
intercourse too. Likewise due to the peer imitation and pressure adolescents fall in
love and plan to meet alone in jungle or any secrete places. This situation is helpful
for the unsafe sexual intercourse, which leads them towards the damage of life as well
as the STIs and HIV. ………..
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34. 3.6 Ethical Consideration
3.7Types of data sources
3.8 Data collection strategy
Social scientists deal with human beings, which are most sensitive in nature. In such
studies it isquiteessential that during development of measurement instrument, all
aspects of data quality and human nature should be taken into account.
3.8.1 Tools of collecting primary data
The enumerators wereselected,whoformed a team of adolescents (both male and
female) interviewers for the collection and the compilation of data from the
interviewed adolescents participants. The special course of training to the team for
data collection and gathering information has been arranged. For the data collection, a
well-structured interviewing schedule consisting of open-ended and closed ended
questions were prepared in the light of research objectives. The necessary steps to
change the data were taken after the approval of the worthy supervisor, the pre-test
was also held in the Districts by the researcher.
The information was collected directly fromtherespondents (school adolescents) by
following methods:
a. Questionnaire and Surveys: - This includedthe range of response questions,
close ended questions, providing limited answers to specific responses or on a
numeric scale.
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35. Both the Closed ended and open ended questionnaires were developed to collect the
data, facts and information from the respondents,which is mentioned in appendix 1.
b. Interview schedule: This included people to interview, develop the interview
questions including open-ended questions and close ended questions and carefully
eliminating leading questions. The interview schedule was prepared for the
collection of required data and information of respondents, which is mentioned in
appendix 2.
c. Checklist:A checklist is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by
compensating for potential limits of human memory and attention. It helps to
ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task. A basic example is the
"to do list." A more advanced checklist would be a schedule, which lays out tasks
to be done according to time of day or other factors (WIKIPEDIA, 2013).
The checklist was developed to collect the facts and information of the respondents
which they could not express during interview and filling the questionnaire. It is
mentioned in appendix 3.
d. Rating Scale:A rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information
about a quantitative or a qualitative attribute. In the social sciences, common
examples are the Likert scale and 1-10 rating scales in which a person selects the
number which is considered to reflect the perceived quality of a
product(WIKIPEDIA, 2012).
The rating scale was developed for the collection of real information or fact or the
attitude of the respondents, which is mentioned in appendix 4.
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36. 3.8.2 Tools of collecting of secondary data
Various statistical tools were also used tocollect and analyze the secondary data.
a. Document Review: - Obtaining the actual forms and operating
documentscurrently being used. Reviews office copies of forms and samples of
actualcompleted forms.
b. Observation: - analyzing annual reports and press releases, verifying
thestatements made during the interviews.
c. Web Search: - The information related to outside region (other part of
Nepaland(Globe) was studied from internet to other published papers.
d. Various policies from National organization weredealt in details by
referringvarious government publications and reference books, journals, published
datafrom time to time.
e. Research of journals, periodicals, technical materials, electronics/internet
searches, professionals meetings, seminars and discussions, site visits etc.
Sampling like records, reports, operational logs, data entry documents,complaints, and
various types of forms.
3.9 Formations of questionnaires and checklist
3.10 Reliability and validity test of research instruments
3.10.1 Language translation-back-translation
3.10.2 Discussion with expert
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37. 3.10.3 Pilot study
3.11 Data analysis
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for analyzing the data.
Frequency distributions of the variables were first obtained and appropriate statistical
tools was applied to check the significance. For the clear representation of statistics
graph, charts and bar diagrams were used accordingly.For the analysis of qualitative
information explanatory method was used.
37